Rochester Cathedral Masons’ Marks

by Jacob Harry Scott PCIfA School of Archaeology and Ancient History University of Leicester Dissertation for BA degree in Archaeology January 2019 Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 1 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Abstract Some 4,000 visible masons’ marks survive on the dressed stone of twelfth-century fabric at Rochester Cathedral. The west façade, nave, crypt, quire transept, presbytery and small portions of the chapter house and dorter all feature marks. A comprehensive survey of these masons’ marks can provide a relative chronology of building work at the site, within the absolute chronology provided by architectural-historical models. A typology has been created of the building’s marks and these have been compared against datasets from other sites to identify their purpose. The distribution of each mark type is identified, and the viability is assessed of using this data to create a profile of each mason's work in terms of materials used and architectural features and sculptural designs worked. Word count: 9,486 words i Contents ii List of illustrations .............................................................................................................2 iii Preface ..............................................................................................................................4 iv Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................4 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................5 2 Literature ...........................................................................................................................7 3 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 17 4 Typology ......................................................................................................................... 22 5 Biographies ..................................................................................................................... 28 6 Chronology ..................................................................................................................... 32 7 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 44 8 Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 47 8.1 Index of records spreadsheet (.xls) ........................................................................ 47 8.2 Three-dimensional virtual model key plan (.skp) .................................................. 47 8.3 3,912 photographs (.jpg and .cr2) .......................................................................... 47 9 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 47 9.1 Contemporary sources ........................................................................................... 47 9.2 Modern sources ..................................................................................................... 47 Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 2 Jacob H. Scott 2019 ii List of illustrations Illustrations and photographs are by the author unless stated otherwise. Image files have been made available online, at: https://rochestercathedralresearchguild.org/reports/rcl18r04/ 1.1 Photograph of a twelfth-century masons' mark at Rochester Cathedral, in the shape of a trefoil (type 3a1). The inscribed mark has been illuminated using raking light. 2.1 Ground-floor plan of west end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey conducted in 2007 (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have been colour-coded after St John Hope (1898), with revised dates from more recent studies. 2.2 Ground-floor plan of east end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey conducted in 2007 (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have been colour-coded after St John Hope (1898), with revised dates from more recent studies. See key in fig. 2.1. 2.3 The west end of Rochester Cathedral. (Top) The west façade. (Middle) The centre nave aisle and nave arcades. (Bottom, left) South nave aisle. (Bottom, right) North nave aisle. 2.4 The ruined east range of the cloisters. Marks survive only on small portions of the fabric protected from the weathering by the chapter library on the left of the photo and the archway once leading to the dormitory stairs on the right. 2.5 The east end of the cathedral (top) the sanctuary, (middle, left) the north quire transept, (middle, right) the south quire transept and (below) the crypt. 3.1 Using the vertical access platform and raking light to survey marks on the south arcade of the presbytery. Photo: Alex Pitcher. 3.2 Screenshots of three-dimensional virtual model of Rochester Cathedral with masons’ marks colour-coded by type. (Above) The west end, showing the nave arcades and west front. (Centre) The east end, comprising the quire above the crypt. (Below) Close-up of the north nave arcade. 4.1 Digital trace of numerous masons' marks on a pier in the crypt of Rochester Cathedral. Marks are visible on approximately 20% of twelfth-century ashlar, with the other 80% presumably on obscured faces of the stones. 4.2 Figure 4.2. (A and B) Carved stone fragments featuring masons’ marks, believed to have originated from the cloisters. (C to G) Fragments re-used in the north nave transept gable featuring alphanumeric masons’ marks. (H) An ashlar some 6m high in the south nave aisle wall bears an inscription ‘1664 / W.C. / B.P.H / I.C.G. / W.B.’ 4.3 Typology of masons' marks at Rochester Cathedral, coded by a system outlined by Alexander (2008). Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 3 Jacob H. Scott 2019 5.1 Distribution of masons’ marks types by architectural detail, showing masons at the cathedral did not specialise in any one design or level of complexity. 6.1 (Above) Eight types of mark can be found on both the north and south nave arcades and the west front, indicating a single construction phase with no significant pause in work. (Below) Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the north nave arcade. 6.2 (Above) Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the south nave arcade. (Below) Four mark types occur exclusively on the west front. The distinction in marks between the arcades and the west front indicate that work on each was conducted consecutively by one evolving team of banker masons. 6.3 Damaged plasterwork on the triforium of the south nave arcade revealing post-medieval repair. Thick plaster on the arcades obscures investigation of its full extent. 6.4 Portion of a nineteenth-century engraving of the cathedral's west front, showing a building constructed against the south-west tower (reproduced in the Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1996-1997). 6.5 (Above) Six types of mark can be found in all parts of the east end, from the ground level in the crypt to the top of the clerestory. (Below) Two types of mark occur only the exterior walls of the east end, from ground level in the crypt to the arches of the lower windows in the quire above. 6.6 (Above) Five types of mark can be found on both the vaulting of the crypt and the east end of the blind arcades of the liturgical quire. (Below) Eight types of mark occur almost exclusively on the east arcade of the quire transept and throughout the clerestory of the east end. 6.7 Portion of St John Hope's (1898) conjectural plan of the old east end of the cathedral, confirmed by excavations in 2014. The east wall partially overlies the east arcade of the new quire transept. 6.8 Stone fragment re-used in a vault in the Ithamar Chapel, discovered and extracted during conservation work in 2012. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 4 Jacob H. Scott 2019 iii Preface From September 2016 to the time of writing, a photographic survey of pictorial, symbolic and alphanumeric graffiti at Rochester Cathedral has been conducted by the Rochester Cathedral Research Guild, of which the current author is director. To date some 4,000 graffiti have been recorded. These previous surveys were essential in the identification and interpretation of masons’ marks within the huge corpus of inscriptions at the cathedral. A preliminary survey of 1,000 masons’ marks was conducted by the author over the summer of 2017, with photographic recording of the remaining 3,000 marks from October to December 2018. In 2019 the Kent Archaeological Society will publish a final report on the masons’ marks and graffiti surveys in a monograph entitled Rochester Cathedral Graffiti. iv Acknowledgements This dissertation was supervised by Deirdre O’Sullivan, lecturer in medieval archaeology at the University of Leicester. Thanks are extended to the volunteers, staff and friends of the cathedral, without whom this work would not have been possible. Graham Keevill, Rochester Cathedral Archaeologist, and Alan Ward for their advice on the medieval architecture and archaeology. The Friends of Rochester Cathedral have supplied a software license for the creation of the three-dimensional virtual model and have also previously purchased the aerial work platform for high-level access at the cathedral, used extensively throughout this survey. A camera and other essential equipment were supplied by the Dean and Chapter of Rochester Cathedral with funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund. Above all, the time and patience of Colin Tolhurst the Head Verger, Joseph Miller the Dean’s Verger and all the members of the Rochester Cathedral events team and verger department is a precious resource gratefully received. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 5 Jacob H. Scott 2019 1 Introduction Masons’ marks are most commonly defined as symbols inscribed onto dressed stonework to identify the work of the individual or team who quarried or dressed the stone, or else constructed the architectural feature on or near which it is found (fig. 1.1). Marks for other purposes can also sometimes fall under this broad term, such as setting out lines to instruct the dressing of stone or the construction of an architectural feature. These marks survive in their millions on the fabric of cathedrals, castles, churches, fine homes and palaces throughout Europe and beyond. Masons’ marks are found on structures as early as the Bronze Age palace at Malia in Crete (Devolder 2018) and as far as the crusader churches of the medieval Levant (Sinibaldi et al. 2016). A modern tradition evolved during the late middle ages and masons in yards today often use a monogram formed of their initials as a personalised mark. Figur Figure e 11.1. Photograph of a twelfth.1. Photograph of a twelfth--century masons' mark at Rochester Cathedral, in century masons' mark at Rochester Cathedral, in the shape ofthe shape of a trefoila trefoil (type (type 3a13a1)). The inscribed mark has been illuminated using raking . The inscribed mark has been illuminated using raking light.light. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 6 Jacob H. Scott 2019 It is not known how the use of masons’ marks was introduced to England. Marks have been found on Anglo-Norman Period buildings, but it is not clear if the Normans introduced the use of masons’ marks or if it predates the conquest (Alexander 2007). The most numerous masons’ marks found in medieval structures are those of the banker mason. These banker marks were used to calculate pay and for the purposes of quality control. In buildings with extensive sequences of surviving (and visible) banker marks it has been possible to identify concurrent building phases or pauses in work to establish a relative chronology for the construction of its fabric. Over four thousand banker marks survive on visible surfaces of the twelfth-century fabric of the nave and west front, crypt, quire and cloistral buildings of Rochester Cathedral - then the Cathedral Priory of St Andrew. This study will use the new photographic record of these sequences of marks to establish a relative chronology for the construction of this fabric. The possibility of creating biographies of these unnamed masons will be assessed, in terms of time on site, features and designs worked on. This data will be used to corroborate and supplement the absolute (albeit incomplete) chronology provided by architectural-historical models. A virtual reconstruction of these marks and the fabric on which they are found, together with a robust photographic recording methodology, will be posited as an effective interpretation tool for use in future studies at other sites. This technique provides a fine detail for study not afforded by more traditional recording methods. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 7 Jacob H. Scott 2019 2 Literature Contemporary records exist for buildings in England from most periods in which masons’ marks were used, providing evidence for their purpose. Ample contemporary documentary evidence survives for the rates of pay for masons and other craftsmen employed at some cathedral sites, as well as for the tools and techniques used, and the conditions of their employment (Alexander 2008, 22). In 1306 a contract between the dean and chapter of Lincoln Cathedral and Richard of Stow agreed that carved work was to be paid by the piece and plain work by the measure. That is, banker masons would make their mark on the blocks they shaped, and they would be paid, presumably at the end of each day, for the full measure of worked stones (Alexander 2001, 219). By contrast, at Exeter Cathedral, the fabric accounts specify that wages were paid to masons weekly. As masons did not have to mark stones individually in order to be paid, Exeter Cathedral’s fabric features very few marks (Alexander 2006). In rare cases, it has even been possible to link marks with named masons in contemporary documentation (Alexander 2013). No such documentation survives from the medieval works at Rochester Cathedral. Academic interest in masons’ marks began in the nineteenth century. These earliest studies traced identical marks between buildings in an attempt to identify the same masons working at separate sites. It became apparent, however, that as the majority of High Medieval marks are composed of just a few lines they cannot have been unique to one mason. Instead, the vast majority must be coincidental uses of site-specific or even task-specific marks (Alexander 2007, 63). More recent studies of marks have found more success in focussing investigations of marks on individual sites or structures to identify building phases and significant pauses in work. The simplest of these surveys identifies common marks on separate portions of fabric to suggest roughly contemporary building phases. Areas with distinct mark types are interpreted as resulting from pauses in construction. In this manner the marks recorded from a preliminary survey at the turn-of-the-twelfth-century church of San Isidoro, Leon was used to establish a complex construction history within the context afforded by several dated inscriptions and the documentation afforded by its royal patronage (Martin 2005). Many of these surveys are conducted from ground-level Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 8 Jacob H. Scott 2019 and are clearly limited in the data they can provide. A study of interest to the interpretation of this survey is that of the 2,500 carved stone fragments from Christ Church, Dublin. Many of these stones feature mason’s marks which have been grouped by type to identify their provenance within the medieval building, demolished in the 1870s (Moss 2000, 23). Mason’s marks have been identified on the carved stone fragments at Rochester Cathedral, on both loose fragments and those re-used in later fabric. More comprehensive surveys divide structures and sites into individual architectural features, recording all visible marks, and compares and contrasts the quantities of mark types within sequences on each feature. The western part of the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in northern Spain was surveyed for masons’ marks during a tachimetric-based survey running from 2004 to 2010, producing a series of plans and elevations of the building. Section of the building were coded and the mark types between each compared. A relative chronology of marks was then produced. Distinct masons' marks types were matched between the west crypt of the cathedral, the narthex and the gallery. Together with a stylistic analysis of the sculpture, archaeological reading of the masonry and the documentary evidence it was established that the Pòrtico de la Gloria is the result of a structural intervention led by Master Mateo at the end of the 12th century, which changed the west end of the building including the crypt (Münchmeyer 2013). Whilst comprehensive surveying and recording of masons’ marks provides more data than simple comparative analysis between forms and fabric, the interpretation of the data produced by these surveys is still limited by two-dimensional recording techniques. Banker marks can establish a course-by-course chronology for the construction of architectural features, but this in impractical in buildings with thousands of marks without three-dimensional modelling. It will be shown here that distinctions can be confirmed between almost identical mark types by a close investigation of their relationship to one another. A virtual model is the only practical method for such an investigation. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 9 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure 2. Figure 2.11. Ground. Ground--floor planfloor plan of of west end of west end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey conducted in 2007 (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have beensurvey conducted in 2007 (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have been colourcolour--codecodedd after after St John St John Hope (1898)Hope (1898),, with revised dates frowith revised dates from m more recent studies.more recent studies. Anglo Anglo--Saxon church of 604Saxon church of 604 Conjectur Conjecturalal remains of Gundulf’s churchremains of Gundulf’s church Later Norman Later Norman c.1137c.1137--11601160 New East end c.1179 New East end c.1179--12001200 Liturgical quire c.1200 Liturgical quire c.1200--12271227 Contemporary work in qu Contemporary work in quire aisles eire aisles etctc North nave transept c.1240 North nave transept c.1240--12551255 South nave South nave transept etc from 1280transept etc from 1280 Alterations etc. from 1300 Alterations etc. from 1300 Fifteenth century works Fifteenth century works Post Post--RReformation and Moderneformation and Modern Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 10 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure 2. Figure 2.22. Ground. Ground--floor planfloor plan of of east end of east end of Rochester Cathedral, after a measured Rochester Cathedral, after a measured survey condusurvey conducted in 2007cted in 2007 (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have been (Carden and Godfrey 2007). Building phases have been colourcolour--codedcoded after after St John St John Hope (1898)Hope (1898),, with revised dates from more recent studies.with revised dates from more recent studies. See key in fig. 2.1.See key in fig. 2.1. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 11 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 22..3.3. The west end of RochesterThe west end of Rochester Cathedral. (Top) Cathedral. (Top) The west façade. (Middle) ThThe west façade. (Middle) The e centre navcentre nave aisle and nave arcades. e aisle and nave arcades. ((BottomBottom, left) South nave aisle, left) South nave aisle.. ((BottomBottom, right) , right) NNorth nave aisleorth nave aisle.. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 12 Jacob H. Scott 2019 All studies of undated masons’ marks must work within the absolute chronology provided by architectural-historical models. There had been no prior survey of mason’s marks at Rochester Cathedral, other than some late twentieth-century legends of previous Head Vergers hanging off the triforium by their coat tails to record their variety (sadly unpublished). The first comprehensive architectural history of the cathedral was produced by William St John Hope (1898) from the first hand observations of James T. Irvine, clerk of the works during the late nineteenth-century restorations by Sir George Gilbert Scott, and the cathedral precentor Revd Grevile M. Livett (Halsey 2006, 62). St John Hope produced the first building phase plan of the building (fig. 2.1 and 2.2), linking almost contemporary but vague references to the patrons of work with the phases and styles observed in the architecture. Patrons of work are typically recorded as the presiding bishops or priors. The patron of the earliest form of the standing building is recorded as Bishop Gundulf (Textus Roffensis c.1123, f. 172). Gundulf’s episcopacy lasted from 1075 to 1108. Livett suggested the west end of the building including the nave arcades (fig. 2.3), which appear to have partially been constructed in tufa stone, had been cased and redecorated in Caen stone c.1139-1142, although Hope revised this to 1114-1124 (1898, 218). Studies of the architectural styles of the Caen stone west front generally agree that it immediately followed the redecoration of the nave arcades, in the 1150s and 1160s (Worssam 2005). The surviving portions of the chapter house and dorter within the east range of the cloisters (fig. 2.4) have been dated to the episcopacy of Bishop Ernulf (1115-1130), inferred from the accumulation of several plots of land during this time (St John Hope 1900, 7). Later estimates place the date closer to c. 1160 (McNeill 2006, 186). The difference in architectural styles is taken as evidence that a different workshop produced the surviving east range of the cloister than the almost contemporary work on the nave arcades. An extensive redecoration and low-level refacing is now believed to have occurred at the same time as the major cathedral redecoration campaign after 1137 (Worssam 2005). Rochester Castle keep, just 80 metres from the west front of the cathedral, is recorded as being constructed from 1127-1141, in a campaign that would have overlapped with the cathedral Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 13 Jacob H. Scott 2019 redecoration campaign after the fire of 1137. At this time the castle was in the possession of Archbishop Corbeil. The architectural details of the keep are also in Caen stone. Just six surviving marks have been identified within the keep, which has lost its roof and has been greatly affected by weathering in the post-medieval era. The east end of the cathedral comprises the presbytery, quire transepts and almost the entire crypt save its tufa eastern portion surviving from the 1080s (fig. 2.5). It is generally dated to after the fire of 1179. St John Hope suggested 1200 to 1215 (1898) as Bishop Gilbert de Glanville is recorded as having finished the quire from the proceeds of a new shrine to St William of Perth (d. 1201). St John Hope proposes that this was in reference to the entire east end of the building except the liturgical quire (1898, 233). The entry of the monks into the quire is recorded as 1227, which Hope interprets as referring to the liturgical quire. This marked the completion Figure 2. Figure 2.44.. The ruined eastThe ruined east rangerange of the cloisters. Marks survive only on small portions of the cloisters. Marks survive only on small portions of the fabric protected from the weatheringof the fabric protected from the weathering by the chapter library on the left of the by the chapter library on the left of the photo and the archway once leading to the dormitory stairs on photo and the archway once leading to the dormitory stairs on the right.the right. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 14 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 22..55. The east end of the . The east end of the cathedralcathedral (top) the sanctuary, ((top) the sanctuary, (middlemiddle, left) the , left) the nornorth th quire quire transepttransept,, ((middlemiddle, right) the , right) the sousouth quire transeptth quire transept and (and (below) the below) the ccrypt.rypt. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 15 Jacob H. Scott 2019 of the east end work. These parts of the building are constructed with both Caen stone and Reigate ashlar used interchangeably, with the contrast between the yellow Caen and the grey-green Reigate used for decoration. The east end features almost 2,000 mason’s marks. Recent revisions to Hope’s architectural-historical model tend to agree with this division of building phases, although attempt to closer reconcile the dates for the almost entirely unscorched Romanesque and Early Gothic fabric with contemporary references to two extensive twelfth-century fires. On the 3rd of June 1137 the entire building is said to have been burnt (Gervase of Canterbury c.1200). McAleer (1996, 158) concurred with Livett that the campaign including the nave arcades was a result of the fire of 1137. McAleer (1985) has provided a building sequence for the nave arcades based on variations in architectural features and interprets changes in design between the piers and arcades. The bases of the furthest west piers of the north nave arcade differ from the one surviving pier at the east and those of the south nave arcade. The large arches on the aisle side of the north nave arcade are cased in Caen stone but those on the south side are not. It is suggested that the south piers were cased first, then the north piers and the north arcade, then the south arcade, followed by the west front. On the 11th of April 1179 the east end of the building was destroyed by another fire (Cotton MS. Vespasian A. 22, f. 30.). More recent studies have tended to place the works more immediately after the fire than St John Hope, now seen as the terminus post quem (Tatton-Brown 2005, McAleer 1996). Work would then likely be almost finished by the time of William of Perth’s death in 1201. His shrine is said to have been placed in the north quire transept where it resided until the Reformation. The quire aisles, nave transepts and the three furthest-east bays of the nave are dated to the thirteenth century. The Lady Chapel is dated to the 1490s (St John Hope 1898). It is of interest that no visible masons’ marks have been identified on any of this later fabric. Three forms of evidence are used to suggest that work on the east end began at the junction between the old presbytery and the new quire transept. There is a Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 16 Jacob H. Scott 2019 shift in use from Bethersden marble to Purbeck for the string course that runs throughout the crypt level of the transept and sanctuary, roughly in line with the entrance to the Ithamar chapel (Worssam 2000). Bethersden was the predominant marble in use in Kent in the twelfth century. Purbeck became the predominant marble in the thirteenth century. This junction was also the logical place to begin work to assure a strong junction and maintain levels between the old and new work. This junction is formed by unmarked Kentish ragstone rubble. These more detailed construction chronologies will be assessed using the data from this survey, where possible. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 17 Jacob H. Scott 2019 3 Methodology Each stone featuring a surviving masons’ mark is photographed with a Canon EOS 6D DSLR camera, saved simultaneously in RAW and JPEG format. A physical scale with a colour-balance patch and a circular target is included in each photograph to aid in photogrammetric analysis and readjusting perspective in post-processing. Photographs are centred on the visible face of the stone featuring the mark, from a distance that allows a uniform amount of the immediate context of each stone to be included in each photograph. During identification and photography, an inexpensive consumer-end LED white light has been used to illuminate the surface of the stone and provide contrast between the surface and the shadow cast over pits and scratches. This technique is known as raking light, and many marks are virtually invisible to the naked eye without such lighting. Applying artificial contrast to photographs, or viewing in negative, is also of much use in identifying lightly-inscribed marks. F Figure igure 33..11.. Using the vertical access platform Using the vertical access platform and raking light and raking light to survey marks on the to survey marks on the south arcade of the presbytery. Photo: Alex Pitcher.south arcade of the presbytery. Photo: Alex Pitcher. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 18 Jacob H. Scott 2019 A 10 metre Genie Aerial Work Platform 30S has been used for the identification and recording of marks above head height (fig. 3.1). Marks higher than this were identified and recorded with a zoom lens and without a scale, including those on the upmost portions of the quire transept clerestory and the interior and exterior triforium level of the west front. The limitations to using raking light from only below the object to identify out-of-reach marks means it would be easy for lightly-incised marks to be missed. However, marks below head height together with those accessible from the use of the aerial work platform appear to comprise over 95% of visible marks in the building. The location of each marked stone is recorded in a three-dimensional virtual model of the surviving portions of twelfth-century fabric (fig. 3.2). This simplified model has been constructed in Trimble Inc. Sketchup 2015, using scale plans of the cathedral from a measured survey (Carden and Godfrey 2009). This measured survey did not produce a complete set of elevations and the arcades of the nave were not surveyed. The height of marks and proportions of architectural features that could not be measured with a 3m tape measure from ground-level were recorded by means of photogrammetric estimation. Although this results in a lower level of accuracy than can be achieved by direct recording, plotting the four thousand visible marks recorded by this survey on two-dimensional plans or elevations would be hugely impractical, with many marks occurring on the interior faces of arches or shafts. Mark types have been coded according in part to a methodology outlined by Alexander (2008, 34). In this system, each mark type is numbered according to how many lines are used within the symbol and assigned a letter according to their approximate likeness. Each type is then numbered again to make each mark type unique. This methodology has been adjusted so that each mark retains its camera roll number, significantly aiding the recording of this many marks within the virtual model. The type of stone on which the mark is found is also recorded, with a description of surviving sculptural decoration. It can then be ascertained if masons worked exclusively on one type of decoration, or using Caen stone or Reigate stone, Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 19 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 33..22. Screenshot. Screenshotss of threeof three--dimensional virtual modeldimensional virtual model of Rochester Cathedral of Rochester Cathedral with masons’ marks cowith masons’ marks colourlour--coded bcoded by type.y type. (Above) The west end, showing the nave (Above) The west end, showing the nave arcades and west front. (Centre) The east end, comprising the quire above the arcades and west front. (Centre) The east end, comprising the quire above the crypt. crypt. (Below) Close(Below) Close--up of the north nave arcade.up of the north nave arcade. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 20 Jacob H. Scott 2019 for example. These fields are recorded in the index of records spreadsheet (app. 8.1). Rochester Cathedral is constructed some 30 degrees to the south of the standard eastern direction. For ease of reference, the cathedral’s liturgical compass is used for recording marks and throughout this report. A comparative analysis of the marks between each portion of the building has ascertained if they were constructed by the same team of masons. If so, it is suggested they were working at slightly different times, although within the same building phase. The portions were possibly constructed concurrently if they were worked on by different teams of masons but can be identified as belonging to a single building phase. In this manner a relative chronology for the construction of the building can be produced, within the absolute chronology provided by architectural-historical models and the evidence for medieval fires and other events. There are myriad complexities to providing estimates for the time taken to dress and construct portions of the medieval fabric. If the masons were using a stone saw to reduce large blocks from the quarry into ashlars, instead of the older technique of splitting with chisels, wedges and hammers, it would significantly reduce the average time required to prepare ashlar. Diagonal linear tooling marks characteristic of the use of an axe can be seen on much of the twelfth-century ashlar at Rochester. Chisels would be used for finer work. Tools were probably prepared by an on-site blacksmith, but even factors such as the quality of metal and the smelting techniques used can affect the speed of tool use and wear, and subsequently significantly affect the time taken to dress stone. A skilled mason can dress stones twice as fast as an apprentice. We know from documentary evidence that most works departments were significantly reduced in winter, when frost could damage the partially complete structure (Alexander 2008, 22). Banker masons can, in theory, work year-round, with stone being stockpiled in winter for the spring. However, the banker masons would only comprise a small portion of the entire workforce at the site. It is not known if construction occurred concurrently with the dressing of stone, and an apparent absence of marks from those constructing means it cannot be known how many masons were working on the construction of each portion. Both of Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 21 Jacob H. Scott 2019 the two main building phases at Rochester Cathedral would have entailed laying of foundations and demolition of significant portions of the standing structure, again an unquantifiable pause in laying ashlar. These variables make the establishment of an absolute chronology by means of masons’ marks impractical. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 22 Jacob H. Scott 2019 4 Typology This chapter will investigate the types of masons’ marks at Rochester Cathedral. In doing so, the purpose of these marks and their forms will be established. 3,912 examples of 73 types of marks have been recorded by this survey. The sheer volume of masons’ marks suggests that the vast majority, if not all, are banker marks. Marks resulting from those constructing would typically be far fewer in number. Marks occur on approximately 20% of visible Caen stone surfaces, in both the east and west of the building (fig. 4.1), indicating that they were created by the banker masons immediately after the dressing of each stone. These marks became redundant once the stone had been counted for the purposes of pay or quality control, so the remaining 80% of banker marks are believed to exist on the obscured faces of stones. This interpretation is supported by several marks found on the faces of carved stone Figur Figure e 44..11. Digital trace of numerous masons' marks on a pier in . Digital trace of numerous masons' marks on a pier in thethe crypt of crypt of RoRochester Cathedralchester Cathedral. Marks are . Marks are visible visible on approximately 20% of on approximately 20% of twelfthtwelfth--century century ashlarashlarss, with the other 80% , with the other 80% presumably presumably on obscured faces of the stones.on obscured faces of the stones. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 23 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 44..2.2. (A(A and and B) Carved stone fragments fB) Carved stone fragments feaeaturing masonsturing masons’’ marks, marks, believed to believed to have originathave originateded from thefrom the cloisters.cloisters. (C(C to G) Fragments reto G) Fragments re--used in the north nave used in the north nave transept gable featuring alphanumeric masonstransept gable featuring alphanumeric masons’’ marks. (marks. (HH) A) An ashlarn ashlar some some 66m him high gh in the south nave aisle wall bears anin the south nave aisle wall bears an inscriptioninscription ‘‘1664 1664 / / W.C. / B.P.H / I.C.G. / W.B.W.C. / B.P.H / I.C.G. / W.B.’’ A A BB C C DD E E FF G G HH Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 24 Jacob H. Scott 2019 fragments originating from the cathedral which would not have been visible in situ (fig. 4.2, A and B). Many examples of clearly truncated or partially obscured marks also supports their identification as banker marks, being rendered obsolete once construction or the final dressing to make stones fit on site has occurred. A complete absence of visible marks in some portions of the building may be the result of an evolution in the tradition of creating marks. The north nave transept gable was rebuilt in the 1890s by Sir George Gilbert Scott. The rough stonework on the interior of the gable features many carved stone fragments re-used in the later fabric. Several of these feature masons marks, all of which would have been invisible when the stones were in situ (fig. 4.2, C to G). These marks are made of deep incised lines to increase friction between the stone and mortar. Masons yards today routinely leave marks only on the obscured faces of stones. Several of these are in the form of two-letter initials, which is unknown within the larger sequences of marks in the nave and quire. The stones re-used in the north nave transept gable are apparently of a later phase than those in the main sequences on the in situ fabric, although a precise provenance has yet to be determined. These marks then may represent the earliest evidence at the cathedral of the evolution of the masons’ mark tradition. This may account for the apparent absense of marks in the quire aisles, nave transept and Lady Chapel, as well as at other sites. Seventy-seven mark types have been identified by this survey in the main sequences of marks found on in situ fabric (fig. 4.3). Of the 3,912 examples recorded, 197 degraded or partially obscured marks (5%) have been recorded as illegible. 54 types are found on the surviving portions of the twelfth-century nave and west front. 40 types recorded in the crypt, quire transept, presbytery and cloisters are almost entirely distinct from those in the nave. Fifteen marks occur across the nave, crypt and the quire. As the earliest date for the construction of the east end provided by architectural-historical models is some 20 years after that of the nave, it seems unlikely that these marks were from the same masons. The fourteen mark types on the surviving portions of the chapter house and the dorter are also apparently of a distinct phase. 63 of these 77 types are composed of six or fewer lines, suggesting a Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 25 Jacob H. Scott 2019 high likelihood of coincidental use. Coincidentally similar marks can also be identified by differences in hand-style or epigraphic execution of marks, or if a significant pause in its use can be identified. Fourteen mark types match or closely resemble twelfth-century Latin letters; 2r1, 2r2, 2x1, 2x2, 3h1, 3n1, 4m1, 4m2, 4w1, 5a1, 5a2, 9m1, 10n1, 12a1. Several of these could conceivably represent the initial of their corresponding masons. It has been noted that masons’ marks from the later Middle Ages more often resemble initials than earlier marks and suggested this may reflect an increase in literacy over the period (Hislop 2012, 46). However, the twelfth century marks at Rochester Cathedral that do resemble letters can often be mirrored, such as type 3n1. Many stones in-situ are also in a position that the banker would have known would leave the mark on its side, perhaps indicating at least some of these resemblances to actual letters may be coincidental, or else their being recognisable as letters was unimportant. It is also of interest that seven mark types precisely match Anglo-Saxon runes; 2r1 (rad/r), 2x1 and 2x2 (gyfu/g/j or nyd/n), 3n1 (sigel/s), 3f1 (tiw/t), 4m1 (eh/e), 4b1 (daeg/d) and 3s2 (ior/ia/io). Similarly to masons’ marks, runic is comprised of angular letter shapes best suited for inscriptions, so this could well be incidental. However, all but ior/ia/io are the initials of the most common male forenames in Britain during the middle ages, many of these introduced by the Normans. The use of runes was superseded by the Latin alphabet by the eleventh century, but it is conceivable that some masons were familiar with the script of their grandparents and great-grandparents. Six mark types resemble tools or weapons. Mark type 4a3 may represent a pair of tongs. 4p1 could be an axe and 8t2 an axe head. 5p1 and 6b2 may be knives and 6t1 appears to represent a mallet. 5t1 could represent a bow and arrow. 5t1 is clearly a well-formed sword. Marks resembling tools are not uncommon at other medieval sites. The 42 other mark types are seemingly abstract designs comprised of as few lines as possible to be distinct. The average number of lines in the mark types of the west end is 4.75 and the average in the east end is 4.04, perhaps indicating that more complex Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 26 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 4.3.4.3. TypologTypology of masonsy of masons' marks at Rochester Cathedral' marks at Rochester Cathedral, coded by a system , coded by a system outlined by outlined by Alexander (2008).Alexander (2008). Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 27 Jacob H. Scott 2019 mark types were required to distinguish between the larger number of masons working on the west end. Marks 3r1, 5a1 and 5a2 are the only types in the building to feature serifs. As mason apprenticeships are believed to be common on medieval building sites, this supports the revision of a traditional interpretation that seriffed marks were used by apprentices to distinguish between the mark of their master (Martin 2005, 379). It does seem that several mark types may have been modified from more commonly-used simple symbols to distinguish between similar marks; 2x1 and 6x2, for example, and 4a3, 5a1 and 9a1. Mark types 10n1 and 12a1, occurring on the west front c.1150, appear to be bold versions of 3n1 and 5a1 respectively. Superficially, it appears as though this could be to distinguish these marks from an identical mark of another masons. These latter marks, however, occur only in the east end of the building and thus antedate 10n1 and 12a1 by several decades. Of interest to the interpretation of an absence of masons’ marks on later portions of fabric at Rochester Cathedral are mark types 1l1 and 2t1. These marks are identifiable only by their recurring positions in the corner of each ashlar. Very occasionally individual ashlars have been marked by two types mark. As these stones do not appear to be re-used from previous campaigns, the cause of marking these stones twice is not immediately apparent. In addition to the main sequences described above, there are a number of unique marks that occur on other fabric within the building. 5t2 occurs on the keystone above the bay window of the chapter library. When singular marks such as these are found in prominent positions on architectural features, they may be the mark of those constructing the feature. Without recurrence of marks this is difficult to establish, as they could also be setting-out marks, surviving quarry marks, or partially legible graffiti inscriptions. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 28 Jacob H. Scott 2019 5 Biographies This chapter addresses if a biography of each masons’ work can be constructed from the distribution of each banker mark type. The possibility of estimating the size of the banker mason workforce during each building phase will be assessed. Can it be discerned how many masons worked at the cathedral for a considerable duration and how many for a limited time only? Did some or all the masons at Rochester Cathedral specialise in certain designs or types of stone? Tracing each mark type around the building may superficially appear to offer an opportunity to construct a biography of each mason’s work. However, it has been established that the simplicity of most mark types must have meant that many identical designs were used by different masons on separate occasions. Only one or two examples of marks 2t1, 2y1, 3r2, 4a3, 4h1, 4p2, 5t2, 6t1, 8n1, 8t2, 9x1 and 11t1 have been recorded throughout the building. Essential to the nature of these marks is an appreciation of the taphonomic circumstances resulting in the destruction of a high percentage of marks. The upper portions of the nave arcades and quire clerestory have seen much whitewashing in the post-medieval era, resulting in fewer marks surviving in these areas. Water ingress has obliterated marks in certain areas. Very few marks survive on the exterior of the building, although those that do suggest that marks were used for stonework inside and outside the building. Such unfavourable taphonomic circumstances eradicates parts of the evidence of a mason’s work and limits biographical investigations. As has been noted, several mark types routinely occur on the same corner or face of ashlar blocks on which they are found. If a mason typically marked the same face of each stone, and only occasionally differed, this could result in the small quantity of marks recorded for many types. However, even given the destruction or obscuration of a high percentage of marks, it seems unlikely that so many masons would each dress just a few pieces of stone before leaving the site. This could instead be interpreted as evidence that these types were used for a short time, possibly for the construction of a single architectural feature, and discarded or modified for subsequent projects to avoid confusion between identical marks. Either Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 29 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 5.15.1. Distribution of . Distribution of masons’ marks types by architectural detail, showing masons’ marks types by architectural detail, showing masons at the cathedral did not specialise in any one designmasons at the cathedral did not specialise in any one design oror level oflevel of complexitycomplexity.. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 30 Jacob H. Scott 2019 interpretation means that a simple one mark type equals one banker mason equation for estimating workforce size may not then prove accurate, and subsequently creating a biography of these masons’ work across features impossible. A more accurate estimation of banker mason workforce size can seem to be achieved by counting the masons dressing the stone for each architectural feature at any one time. Between 15 and 20 mark types can be found on each of the piers in the nave. Between 10 and 15 types are found on the nave arcades. The fewer types higher in the arcades may indicate the loss of more marks from water ingress or whitewashing campaigns. The masons’ marks of the nave suggest a banker mason workforce size of around 20 masons working at any one time, with that team the moving to the next feature under construction. The marks of the quire indicate a team of around 10 banker masons were at work at any one time. The occurrence of the same mark across almost all areas within each building phase suggests that one team of banker masons were employed, working on features sequentially. Despite the evidence of single or limited-use marks, the similarity in hand style of many types of marks that occur frequently throughout each major building campaign suggests that many marks were retained by individual masons, at least for the duration of each campaign. Mark types 2a1, 2b1, 2x1, 3a1, 3h1, 3r1, 3s1, 3s2, 4b1, 4m1, 4w1, 5a1, 5p1, 5s1, 5t1, 6x2 and 6x3 occur throughout the entire nave, across both arcades. These marks occur across a diverse set of designs, from plain square ashlar to the dog-tooth and chevron moulding voussoirs of the arcades and clerestory (fig. 5.1), indicating that these masons at least did not specialise in any particular stone type. Work then is suggested to have proceeded one feature at a time and the banker masons expected to work on the feature at hand. One evolving team of banker masons worked on each of the nave and triforium piers and arches consecutively, rather than two teams working in parallel across each arcade or in another arrangement. A contiguous sequence of marks can be found in the lower portions of the east end, investigated in the next chapter. Although the evidence for the upper portions and the clerestory is more fragmentary, there it also appears as though one team of banker masons was employed at any one time. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 31 Jacob H. Scott 2019 The nave and west front are entirely Caen stone. Both Reigate and Caen stone is used for the square ashlar and the decorated arches in the east end of the building. The surface of Reigate stone degrades faster than Caen, and so many more marks survive on Caen stone than Reigate. All mark types that do survive on Reigate are also found on Caen. Although a later building phase for the more exclusively Reigate clerestory of the quire transept and sanctuary will be investigated in the assessment of chronology, it appears that masons did not specialise in either material whilst Reigate and Caen were being used interchangeably in the construction of the lower portions of the east end. This chapter investigated the banker workforce size employed at any one time during the work at the east and the west ends, concluding that frequent re-use and discard of marks complicates the creation of biographies of many masons’ work. The next chapter proposes a relative chronology of building work within the framework of absolute chronologies provided by architectural historical models. Construction logic and stratigraphic relationships between building features will be used to supplement this model. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 32 Jacob H. Scott 2019 6 Chronology An increase in the sculptural complexity of pier capitals and tympanum decoration in the nave, as well as some rough work in the aisle-facing spandrels of the north nave arcade have been interpreted as suggesting the course of work in the 1140s (McAleer 1985). There is an intensification in multi-scalloped pier capitals between the south and the north arcades of the nave. The bases of the four easternmost piers of the north arcade are floriated, whereas the furthest west pier of the north arcade and the all the piers on the south arcade feature a simpler roll moulding. The capitals of the tympanum shafts in each arcade are generally more complex to the west than the east. These features have been interpreted by McAleer (1985) as evidence that the arcades were built three bays from the crossing tower, encompassing the furthest east surviving Caen pier of the north nave arcade. The south arcade piers were then continued, followed by the remaining four piers of the north arcade with foliated bases. The north arcade triforium was then completed. During this stage an intention to vault the nave aisles was abandoned. The south triforium was then finished, with more of an effort made to smooth the aisle-facing spandrels on this side now that it was known they would not be covered by vaulting (McAleer 1985, 157). Twelve marks are found almost exclusively on the north nave arcade: 3b1, 3t1, 3y1, 4a1, 4t1, 5y1, 6b2, 6s1, 6x1, 7t1, 9a1 and 12a1 (fig. 6.1, below). Five marks occur almost exclusively on the south arcade: 3n1, 4m2, 4s1, 6m1 and 9m1 (fig. 6.2, above). This clear differentiation of many mark types between the arcades strongly suggests that one arcade was worked and finished before the other, supporting the previous architectural-historical models. However, twelve marks occur on both the piers and the triforium: 2a1, 3b1, 3n1, 3s1, 4b1, 4m1, 5a1, 5p1, 5s1, 5t1, 6s1, 7t1, suggesting there was no significant pause in work during the construction of either. It is difficult to interpret this data as supportive of McAleer’s proposed model for the construction of the nave arcades. Instead, the nave arcades appear to have been worked on consecutively as suggested by previous assessments, after St John Hope (1898). The roughness of the spandrels of the aisle-side of the north nave arcade, in contrast to those of the south, could have resulted from post-medieval repair rather than the change in design interpreted by McAleer (fig. 6.3). Ultimately, thick plaster and Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 33 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 66.1.1. . (Above) Eight(Above) Eight types of mark can be found on both the north and south types of mark can be found on both the north and south nave nave arcadesarcades and the west front, indicating a single constand the west front, indicating a single construction phase with no ruction phase with no significant pause in work. significant pause in work. ((BelowBelow) Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the ) Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the north north nnave ave arcadearcade.. 6x 6x11 7t1 7t1 9a 9a11 12a 12a11 9m1 9m1 4t 4t11 5y1 5y1 6b2 6b2 6 6ss11 9m1 9m1 3 3bb11 3t1 3t1 3y1 3y1 4a 4a11 9m1 9m1 2a 2a11 2b 2b11 3 3ss11 3 3s2s2 4b1 4b1 4 4mm11 9m1 9m1 2x 2x11 3 3aa11 3 3hh11 3r 3r11 9m1 9m1 4w 4w11 5a 5a11 5p 5p11 5s 5s11 9m1 9m1 5t 5t11 6r 6r11 6x2 6x2 6x3 6x3 9m1 9m1 Key Key Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 34 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 6.26.2. . (Above) (Above) Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the Ten types of mark occur almost exclusively on the south navesouth nave arcadearcade. (Below) Four mark types occur exclusively on the west front. The distinction . (Below) Four mark types occur exclusively on the west front. The distinction in marks between the arcades and the west front indicate thain marks between the arcades and the west front indicate thatt work on each was work on each was conducted consecutively by one conducted consecutively by one evolving team of banker masons.evolving team of banker masons. Key 3n1 3n1 4m2 4m2 4s 4s11 6m1 6m1 9m1 9m1 3 3ff11 3f 3f22 10n 10n11 10w 10w11 9m1 9m1 Key Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 35 Jacob H. Scott 2019 whitewash prevent the confirmation of either interpretation. It is believed that at least one altar and one shrine were located in the south nave aisle in the twelfth century. Eighteen medieval votive ship graffiti on a pier in the south nave arcade indicate a shrine to St Nicholas nearby, the patron saint of those in peril on the sea (Scott 2018). St John Hope proposed an altar at the east end of this aisle on the evidence for a screen here (Hope 1898, 273). Finishing work on the south arcade would have allowed the shrines to function whilst work continued on the north arcade. The eleventh-century west front is believed to have still been standing at this time, and so the demolition and reconstruction of one arcade at a time would have placed far less stress on the west front whilst work progressed. Eight types of mark can be found only on one or two adjacent bays: 2a1, 2x1, 3n1, 3p1, 3y1, 4a1, 5t1, 6m1. These limited marks may be indicating that two bays were completed in each working season, March to November; these were presumably the marks of mason teams that were disbanded over the winter and did Figure Figure 6.36.3. Damaged plasterwork on the triforium of the south nave arcade revealing . Damaged plasterwork on the triforium of the south nave arcade revealing postpost--medieval repair. Thick plaster on the arcades obscures investigation of its full medieval repair. Thick plaster on the arcades obscures investigation of its full extexteent.nt. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 36 Jacob H. Scott 2019 not return the next year. The eight types of mark that occur throughout the entire nave arcades would seem to be a core group of masons that were retained over the winter months. The difficulties in estimating time taken for such work notwithstanding, this would seem to be a slow pace for a group of 10 to 15 masons. Eight marks occur fewer than three times throughout the entire arcade: 1b1, 3p1, 3y1, 4a2, 4t1, 4w1, 6b2, 10w1. Only thirty marks have been recorded from the greatly weathered and heavily restored west front. The survival of any marks on the exterior of the building is remarkable. Most of the marks here are found on the southern tower, in an area that was covered by a building in the later medieval and post-modern period (fig. 6.4). This seems to have preserved this sequence of marks. Several of these marks match those from the nave, supporting McAleer’s proposed date of c.1150 for the work on the west front, immediately following on from the reconstruction of the nave arcades beginning after the fire of 1139. The loss of almost all marks on the rest of the west Figure Figure 6.46.4. . Portion of a nPortion of a nineteenthineteenth--century engraving of the cathedral's west front, century engraving of the cathedral's west front, showing a building constructed against the southshowing a building constructed against the south--west towerwest tower (reproduced in the (reproduced in the Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1996Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1996--1997).1997). Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 37 Jacob H. Scott 2019 front confounds further attempts to establish a relative chronology for this fabric, although similarities in mark types found in the lowest portions and a few surviving marks in the interior of the upper portions of the centre aisle towers suggests there was no significant pause in work. Very few marks survive in the cloisters, limited to small portions of ashlar protected by weathering by nearby fabric. What does survive does not resemble the marks of either the nave or the quire, supporting the architectural interpretation that work on these buildings was carried out by a different workshop than the west and east ends of the cathedral. Of the six marks recorded within the castle keep, one of these closely resembles mark 4m3 from the cloisters. There is a clear distinction in mark types between the west end campaign of the 1140s to the 1160s and the rebuilt east end, now most often believed to date to after the fire of 1179. This appears to confirm a significant pause in work, of enough time for the banker mason workforce to be disbanded entirely or to have evolved to include few, if any, of the previous masons. The only complex mark type to occur across both campaigns is the trefoil 3a1. The mark is one of the most common to occur in the nave campaign but occurs only in the earliest identified phases of the east end. Although it is tempting to propose a common mason, the trefoil is surely a symbol that every mason would have been aware and coincidental use by separate individuals seems more likely. Another possibility is that the mark belonged to an apprentice of a mason working on the earlier campaign. A contiguous sequence comprised of mark types 2r1, 2r2, 3f1, 3n1, 4b1, 4a1, 4s1 is found on the walls of the quire transept and sanctuary, from ground level to the string course running below each lower window (approximately 6 metres above the floor of the quire) (fig. 6.5). There is then a marked difference in mark types on the fabric above this height; comprising 1g1, 1l1, 2d1, 2t1, 5s1, 5t1, 5t3 and 6x2 (fig. 6.6). This later sequence can also be found on the east arcade of the quire transept and on the eastern portions of the liturgical quire. Efflorescence damage and general wear has clearly resulted in the destruction of the majority of visible marks on the exterior walls of the crypt transept and Ithamar Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 38 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Chapel. As such there are not enough marks surviving to form firm conclusions as to where work began and finished. Construction logic and the architectural model proposed by Worssam (2006) suggests work started at the junctions between Gundulf/Ernulf’s east end and the new work and moved east. Marks 2r1, 3a1 and 4b1 are found on the north wall of the crypt between the two large buttress towers. Marks 2r1, 3f1, 3s2 and 4a2 are found in the walls of the south crypt transept. Although few in number, these marks broadly correspond with the mark types found on the respective walls of the quire transept above, suggesting the ashlars for each end of the crypt transept were dressed consecutively. Many more marks survive on the dressed ashlar of the wide piers of the east and west arcades of the crypt crossing; of types 2r1, 3f1, 4b1 and 4p1. Mark type 3s2 may be diagnostic in discerning which transept was worked on first, and in turn whether the new work began at the north of the building or the south. It is not found amongst any of the numerous examples of the wide piers in the crypt, nor on the crypt vaulting, yet is almost ubiquities throughout the upper portions of the building and is amongst the few examples in the south crypt transept. This may be taken as evidence that mason 3s2 joined after work had begun on the north transept exterior walls but before work began on the south transept shortly after. However, evidence based on the exclusion of just one mark type in an area with so few surviving marks cannot be considered conclusive. The late medieval fire and modern plaster redecorations have destroyed or obscured all mason’s marks on the Ithamar chapel walls except five examples of mark type 3n1 on the east wall. This is a ubiquitous mark in all walls of the quire transept and sanctuary. Two marks of type 3s2 survive on the buttress on the exterior of the south wall of the Ithamar Chapel. Although based on the evidence of very few marks surviving on the walls of the crypt transept and Ithamar Chapel, the occurrence of mark types around the crypt can be seen to support St John Hope, Tatton-Brown and Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 39 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 6.6.55. . (Above) Six(Above) Six ttypes of mark can be found ypes of mark can be found in all parts of the east end, from in all parts of the east end, from the ground level in the crypt to the top of the clerestorythe ground level in the crypt to the top of the clerestory. (. (BelowBelow) T) Twowo types of mark types of mark occur occur only the exterior walls of the east end, from ground level in the crypt to the only the exterior walls of the east end, from ground level in the crypt to the arches of the lower winarches of the lower winddows in the quire above.ows in the quire above. 4y2 4y2 3 3f2f2 3n1 3n1 3s2 3s2 4b1 4b1 9m1 9m1 2p 2p11 2r1 2r1 2r3 2r3 3f1 3f1 9m1 9m1 2p 2p11 2r 2r33 3a1 3a1 3 3s2s2 9m1 9m1 4y24y2 Key Key Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 40 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Figure Figure 6.6.66. . (Above) Five(Above) Five types of mark can be found on both the types of mark can be found on both the vaulting of the crypt vaulting of the crypt and the east end and the east end of the blind arcades of the liturgical quireof the blind arcades of the liturgical quire. (. (BelowBelow) ) Eight Eight types of types of mark occur almost exclusively on the mark occur almost exclusively on the east arcade of the queast arcade of the quiire transept and re transept and throughout the clerestory of the east end.throughout the clerestory of the east end. 2 2dd11 2 2pp11 2r3 2r3 3 3v2v2 9m1 9m1 4 4pp11 4y2 4y2 5t 5t33 6b 6b11 9m1 9m1 1l 1l11 2 2pp11 2r3 2r3 4a1 4a1 9m1 9m1 4f 4f11 4m 4m33 4y 4y22 5a 5a11 5a2 5a2 6x1 6x1 6x2 6x2 9m1 9m1 6x3 6x3 Key Key Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 41 Jacob H. Scott 2019 McAleer’s interpretation that the rebuilding of the quire began at the west end of the new crossing and encompassed the sanctuary in one campaign. It has been observed that in reconstructions at other cathedral sites around this time that old work is left standing for as long as possible before being demolished, with the new work often constructed around the old before this occurs. Excavations in 2014 confirmed St John Hope’s reconstructed plan of the old east (1898, plate iii). The old east end would have had to have been completely levelled before work was finished on the wide piers of the east arcade of the transept and before work was begun on the west arcade (fig. 6.7). There are burnt fragments of Caen stone re-used in these piers, apparently confirming that the old east end was demolished at this point and the material re-used in the ongoing construction. The completion of these piers allowed for the vaulting of the crypt. This supports the possibility that the vaulting of the crypt is filled with fragments of the demolished east end. This hypothesis was first raised by the discovery of a painted tufa stone fragment re-used in a vault in the Ithamar Chapel during conservation work in 2012 (Perry and Lithgow 2014) (fig 6.8). Mark types 2r1, 4b1 and 4p1 survive on the Figure Figure 6.76.7. . Portion of Portion of St John Hope's St John Hope's (1898) (1898) conjectural conjectural plan of the old east plan of the old east end of end of the cathedral, confirmed by excavations in 2014. The east wall the cathedral, confirmed by excavations in 2014. The east wall partially partially overlies the overlies the east arcade of the new qeast arcade of the new quuire transept.ire transept. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 42 Jacob H. Scott 2019 vaulting on the Ithamar Chapel, matching the wide piers forming its west arcade. Marks survive in only one bay of the vaulting of the crypt crossing, all of them of type 2r1. This confounds attempts at a relative chronology for the vaulting of the two areas but can be taken as indicative that one campaign extending throughout, following immediately on from the dressing of the ashlar for the wide piers. Mark types 4b1, 2r1, 3a1, 4a2 and 6b1 are found on this arcade, which includes the partial casing of the two broad tufa piers of the 1080s. Mark types 2x1 and 2r1 are found on the arches of the barrel vaults between these piers. The upper levels of the quire transept feature far fewer marks than the continuous sequence below. This work is more exclusively of Reigate stone which preserves its surface less effectively than Caen stone. Much of this work is in the arches of windows and is only one stone thick, suffering far more from swings in temperature and efflorescence damage. Despite this, a significant pause between the previous work and these upper portions can be observed. Mark types 2r1, 2d1, 4b1 Figure Figure 6.6.88. Stone fragment. Stone fragment rere--used in a vault in the Ithamar Chapelused in a vault in the Ithamar Chapel, discovered and , discovered and extractedextracted during conservation work in 2012during conservation work in 2012.. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 43 Jacob H. Scott 2019 and 6b1 are found on both the vaulting of the crypt, the work at the east of the blind arcades of the liturgical quire and the wide piers forming the east arcade of the quire transept. This pause may have resulted only from the significant work required to demolish the old east end and vault the crypt. Several masons’ mark types can be traced between the upper portions of the exterior walls, the blind arcades of the liturgical quire and the triforium. Only at this point could the entire east end be vaulted. Much of the stonework for the ribs of the vaulting is far beyond the reach of the 10 metre vertical access platform used for this survey, although eight mark types have been recorded on the lowest portions abutting the triforium. These mark types, though few in number, largely match those of the clerestory. It is possible to interpret this data within the framework provided by the current architectural-historical models for a single building phase construction of the east end. Bishop Gilbert de Glanville (1185-1214) is credited with ‘finishing the quire’ from the proceeds of the shrine of William of Perth, erected shortly after 1201. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 44 Jacob H. Scott 2019 7 Discussion The banker marks at Rochester Cathedral represent a largely ad-hoc system of use, discard and re-use of symbols over at least two major building phases from 1139 to c. 1200. A formal system of masons’ marks, as can be observed from the later middle ages to the modern day, seems not to have been established at this time. There is, however, evidence that a significant number of mark types were retained by their respective mason for at least the duration of each campaign. The diversity of symbols indicates that no one system for choosing the forms of marks existed. Many resemble common ideograms or letters in use or surviving at the time. A relatively high incidence of resemblance to Anglo-Saxon runes may indicate the workforce of banker masons were drawing from a native, rather than continental, cultural background. However, as both masons’ marks and Anglo-Saxon runes were formed of angular symbols for the ease of inscribing this is far from conclusive. The data produced by this study of masons marks proposes a relative chronology and profile of construction campaigns for Rochester Cathedral within the absolute chronology provided by previous architectural-historical models. It is known that such models have inherent limitations. It may not be possible to distinguish when work has been made to appear older to fit the symmetry of the building or its wider aesthetic. Dates are either estimates based on architectural styles or on scant contemporary references to patrons. Most provide only terminus ante-quem and terminus post quem for building campaigns, often with little suggestion as to the precise sequence that the construction of architectural features took place. Whilst it is possible to identify pauses in work and construct relative chronologies for the two major building campaigns at the cathedral, masons’ marks are not inherently dateable. Construction chronologies established by masons’ marks surveys such as this must rely on architectural-historical models for the dating of campaigns. This methodology was appropriate for a comprehensive survey of the numerous marks surviving at Rochester Cathedral. The use of a vertical access platform was essential for this survey. Although marks over 11m in height from the nave or quire floors or out of arms reach of the platform lift had to be recorded with Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 45 Jacob H. Scott 2019 a zoom photo without a scale, it seems to have provided access to over 95% of visible marks in the building. This is one of the most comprehensive surveys of a building with this number of surviving marks, revealing the limitations of those conducted only from ground-level. Lightly incised high-level marks are likely to be missed by ground-surveys. Many of the simplest of marks at the cathedral consisting of just one or two lines could be interpreted as incidental marks when they occur in small numbers. Although a marked improvement on ground-based surveys, the identification of these marks remains difficult whilst working on the vertical-access platform. Telescopic boom access platforms offer greater horizontal outreach than any other type of access platform. From experience, however, the weight of such equipment results in damage to the tiled floor of the quire and even the York stone flags of the nave. It may be possible to employ drone photography to complete surveys of high-level marks in the future, but such a system would need to light the surface of each stone from varying directions – not something easily achievable with commercially available drones today. Scaffolding remains the only way to potentially reach all areas of the building, although a comprehensive survey would be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. The photographic record created by this survey contains over 120GB of data. This record is available for future enquiries and potential reinterpretation. However, the creation, transfer and indexing of this data was time consuming. Over 500 hours were spent on recording and another 500 on the creation of the three-dimensional virtual model. Whilst impractical for many individual researchers, this would be more readily achievable if carried out by a team. Comparable amounts of time are spent on many archaeological excavations. The creation of a three-dimensional virtual model to record masons’ marks was an enormously useful tool to aid interpretation of complex sequences of marks. This model provides a level of detail not afforded by simple surveys and can reveal relationships between sequences of marks that cannot easily be achieved by two-dimensional recording. The previous graffiti surveys conducted by the cathedral were essential in the identification and interpretation of masons’ marks within the huge corpus of Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 46 Jacob H. Scott 2019 inscriptions at the cathedral. To date some 4,000 graffiti have been recorded by these surveys (Scott 2018, Graham and Scott 2019 forthcoming), including votive designs and many abstract or symbolic designs very similar to identified masons marks. In buildings without such a record, work is suggested to begin from the upper levels where graffiti should be minimal. Previous research has indicated the limitations of identifying marks between sites. It seems likely the same issues of duplicate designs are present when matching marks between campaigns at the same site. However, it has been suggested here that thorough surveys and a three-dimensional appreciation of the relationships between sequences of marks can distinguish between superficially identical marks. It is of interest that at least a third of mark types at Rochester Cathedral identified by this survey can be matched with those at Canterbury Cathedral. Despite issues with tracing masons across sites through the common use of a mark, thorough surveys at Rochester Castle, Canterbury Cathedral and churches in the Rochester Diocese considering hand-style, architectural detailing and execution may now identify where the masons that built Rochester Cathedral came from, if other structures were constructed at the same time, and where they went to. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 47 Jacob H. Scott 2019 8 Appendices Appendix files have been archived to the standards of the Archaeological Data Service and made available via Dropbox on the Rochester Cathedral Research Guild website: https://rochestercathedralresearchguild.org/reports/rcl18r04/ 8.1 Index of records spreadsheet (.xls) 8.2 Three-dimensional virtual model key plan (.skp) 8.3 3,912 photographs (.jpg and .cr2) 9 Bibliography 9.1 Contemporary sources Cotton MS. Vespasian A. 22, c.1200, London, British Library, f. 30. Gervase of Canterbury, c.1200, Opera Historica, Rolls Series 73, i. 100. London, British Library. Textus Roffensis, c.1123, Rochester, Cathedral Library, MS A. 3. 5, f. 172. 9.2 Modern sources Alexander, J. S., 2001, ‘The Uses of Masons’ Marks as an Aid to Architectural History’, in J. Higgitt, K. Forsyth and D. Parsons (eds), Roman, Runes and Ogham: Medieval Inscriptions in the Insular World and on the Continent. Donington, pp. 211-222. Alexander, J. S. 2006. ‘A History of Stonemasons’ Marks and Stone Bonding Methods’, in Andrew Prescott (ed.) Marking Well: essays on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Grand Lodge of Mark Master Masons of England and Wales and its districts and lodge overseas, London, pp. 4-62. Alexander, J. S., 2007, The Introduction and Use of Masons’ Marks in Romanesque Buildings in England. Medieval Archaeology, 51, pp. 63-81. Alexander, J. S., 2008, '2: Masons' Marks and the Working Practices of Medieval Stone Masons', in P.S. Barnwell and Arnold Pacey, (eds) Who Built Beverley Minster? Reading: Spire Books, pp. 21-40. Alexander, J., 2012, Kirby Hall, Northants: the evidence of the masons’ marks. Report for English Heritage. Alexander, J., 2013, 'Signed in Stone', Country Life, February 13th 2013. Carden and Godfrey Architects, 2009, Rochester Cathedral – Metric Survey, Job No. 3081/21. Unpublished archive report. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 48 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Devolder, M., 2018, The functions of masons’ marks in the Bronze Age palace at Malia, Crete. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 122, No. 3, pp. 343-366. Graham, D. and Scott, J. H., 2019 (forthcoming), Alphanumeric graffiti at Rochester Cathedral. Archaeologia Cantiana, 2019. Maidstone: Kent Archaeological Society. Halsey, R., 2006, ‘The Twelfth-Century Nave of Rochester Cathedral’, in Ayers, T. and Tatton-Brown (eds), Medieval Art, Architecture and Archaeology at Rochester, pp. 61-84. Hislop, M., 2012, How to build a cathedral, London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Martin, T., 2005, ‘Reading the walls: Masons’ marks and the archaeology of architecture at San Isidoro, Leon’ Essays on Medieval Spain in Honor of John Williams, eds. T. Martin and J. A. Harris, Leiden, 2005, pp. 373-412. McAleer, P., 1985, Some observations on the building sequence of the nave of Rochester Cathedral. Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 102, pp. 149-170. McAleer, P., 1996, ‘The Medieval Fabric’, in Yates, N. and Welsby, P. (eds), Faith and Fabric; A History of Rochester Cathedral 604-1994, Rochester: Boydell and Brewer, Friends of Rochester Cathedral, pp. 149-184. McNeill, J., 2006, ‘The East Cloister Range of Rochester Cathedral Priory.’, in Ayers, T. and Tatton-Brown (eds), Medieval Art, Architecture and Archaeology at Rochester, pp. 97-113. Moss, R. A., 2000, Medieval jigsaw puzzle; the ancient stones of Christ Church. Archaeology Ireland, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 20-23. Münchmeyer, A., 2013, The masons' marks in the western part of the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela: an approach to its construction history. Construction History, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 1-22. Perry, M. and Lithgow, R., 2014, Rochester Cathedral Crypt Medieval Paintings and Plasters - Conservation Project, The Perry Lithgow Partnership Ltd. archive report. Scott, J. H., 2018, Pictorial and symbolic graffiti at Rochester Cathedral. Archaeologia Cantiana, 2018. Maidstone: Kent Archaeological Society. Sinibaldi, M., Lewis, K. J., Major, B., 2016, Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant: The Archaeology and History of the Latin East. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. St John Hope, W. H., 1898, ‘The Architectural History of the Cathedral Church and Monastery of St. Andrew at Rochester; 1. The Cathedral Church’, Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 23, pp. 194-328. St John Hope, W. H., 1900, ‘The Architectural History of the Cathedral Church and Monastery of St. Andrew at Rochester; 2. The Monastery’, Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 24, pp. 1-85. Rochester Cathedral masons’ marks 49 Jacob H. Scott 2019 Tatten-Brown, T., 1997, The Eastern Crypt of Rochester Cathedral. Friends of Rochester Cathedral annual report for 1996-1997. Rochester: Friends of Rochester Cathedral. Worssam, B., 2000, The building stones of Rochester Cathedral crypt. Archaeologia Cantiana, vol. 120, pp. 1-22.