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Introduction to the Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Rochester Bestiary is a splendidly illuminated manuscript depicting wild beasts, domesticated animals and mythological creatures from around the known world. An ongoing translation project by Gabriele Macelletti and a transcription by Dr Patricia Stewart.

Dr Diane Heathe

The bestiary is a medieval book of beasts, in Latin a liber bestiarum or a bestiarium. In the medieval period (400-1500CE) ‘bestiary’ referred to a specific spiritual book that focused on aspects of animal traits in relation to the lessons they provided to people. There were many inter-related versions of the bestiary, in prose and in rhyme, in Latin and in the vernacular. The earliest and main version was the medieval Latin prose bestiary, which was based on a book called the Physiologus, written by monks who lived in the Egyptian desert around the third and fourth centuries. This is why the bestiary includes so many animals from Africa and the Near East. The bestiary allowed the ‘book’ of nature to be read and understood as part of divine creation, as the Book of Job explains:

ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee: and the birds of the air, and they shall tell thee. Speak to the earth, and it shall answer thee: and the fishes of the sea shall tell. Who is ignorant that the hand of the Lord hath made all these things?

Job 12:7-9

This reading of nature became part of what has been called the ‘two books’ trope and was summed up by Alan of Lille (ca. 1128- ca. 1203/5) as

every creature of the world is for us like a book and a picture and a mirror as well.

Alain de Lille²

In its way of reading creation in spiritual terms, the bestiary was a standard text. Its approach linked the literal, allegorical, moral, and spiritual senses of the animal in what was called the ‘allegory of the fourfold senses’, or sensus spiritualis. The bestiary developed from scriptural teachings linked to the classical education of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy). Such teachings sought to understand the Word of God in the Bible and in nature. It sought correspondence between creation and the mysteries of heaven that St Augustine discussed in his De Doctrina Christiana.³ These ideas were applied to animals in the bestiary, to stones in the lapidary, and to plants in the herbals.⁴ Yet there was also a practical element too, creatures, stones and plants were supposed to be described accurately, although drawing from written descriptions allowed artists creative licence – for example, who was to say how accurate an Elephant was when nobody had seen one (until Henry III was given one in the mid thirteenth century).

The bestiary is why we still think of the Lion as the king of beasts and why we say apprentices should be ‘licked into shape.’ The book was the main source of information on animals, particularly non-European animals, for centuries in the Middle Ages. Churches were full of allusions to stories from the bestiary, such as the Lion representing Christ, the Pelican pecking blood from its breast to revive its chicks, and the Dragon as a figure for evil.

*Medieval stained-glass Dragon: Trinity Chapel, Canterbury Cathedral, credit: Professor Rachel Koopmans*

While many bestiaries were unillustrated, some of the deluxe versions produced for wealthy monasteries and the nobility have sumptuous illuminations by professional artists using the most expensive pigments and often gilded. The Rochester Bestiary is one of the most beautiful of these superb medieval masterpieces and it is still being used as inspiration for artists of all ages today. Having this c. 800 year old priceless manuscript on display in the place where it was made is a terrific opportunity for people in Rochester to see for themselves their wonderful medieval heritage.

DEH
July 2023

Footnotes

1 Douay-Rheims trans. Vulgate.

2 Alain de Lille, De Incarnatione Christi Rhythmus Perelegans, PL 210, col. 579A, ‘Omnis mundi creatura/ Quasi liber et pictura/ Nobis est et speculum’ quoted in E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953), p. 319.

3 R. P. H. Green, De Doctrina Christiana, (1995) 1.2; J. Sailhamer, ‘The Classical and Medieval View of Scriptural Meaning’, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation (2009), p. 75-80; F. Ohly, Sensus Spiritualis (2005), p. 3.

4 See H. Lubac, Medieval Exegesis, (trans. 1998) 1, pp. 1-14; J. Ziolkowski, ‘Literary Genre and Animal Symbolism’, ed. by L. A. J. R. Houwen, Animals and the Symbolic in Mediaeval Art and Literature (1997), pp. 1-23, p. 9 describes St Augustine’s ideas as ‘codes of meaning.’

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Lion, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff3r-5r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

In Medieval Christian religion, the lion was sometimes associated with Christ in order to emphasise His power and authority over all His creation. Christ was seen as the saviour and the ruler. In revelation 5:5, Christ was called the Lion of Judah¹, firstly because the lion was the symbol of the House of Judah and Jesus a descendent of the House of Judah, secondly because he was supposed to be a king and the lion symbolises the king of all beasts.

Lions were also a symbol of the resurrection of Christ after three days. Christians believed that lions’ cubs were born dead and remained as such for three days until their fathers breathed life into them.

They also symbolised purity and virginity owing to the lion’s habit of sleeping with its eyes open as a sign of vigilance and purity. The Virgin Mary was also perpetually pure and virgin and watched over humanity with care.

Intriguingly, the narrative also touches upon mythical elements, such as the leontophones, small beasts whose ashes have lethal effects on lions. This juxtaposition of natural history with folklore adds layers of intrigue to the Bestiarium, making it a captivating exploration of the animal kingdom's complexities and mysteries.

_Bestiarum uocabulum proprie
conuenit leonibus. pardis. et ti-
gribus. lupis et uulpibus. canibus
et simiis. ac ceteris que uel
ore uel unguibus seuiunt. Excep-
tis serpentibus; Bestie autem
dicite; a ui; qua seuiunt. Fere
appellate; eo quod naturali utun-
tur libertate. et desiderio suo fe-
rantur. Sunt enim libere eorum uoluntates. et huc atque
illuc uagantur. et quo animus duxerit; eo ferantur.
Grece enim leon vocatur. et est nomen nothum. et ex parte corruptum
Leo enim grece; latine interpretatur rex; eo quod princeps est
omnium bestiarum

Huius genus tripharium(changed from triumpharium) genus dicitur. e quibus breves
et iuba crispa; imbelles sunt. longi et coma simpli-
ci. acres animos eorum et cauda indicat. Virtus eorum
in pectore. Firmitas autem; in capite. Rotarum timent
strepitus. sed ignes magis. Leo nature sue in superbis feroci-
tatem sui aliarum ferarum generibus miscere nescit.

The term Bestiarium applies specifically to lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, foxes, dogs, and apes, and all other animals that rage either with their mouths or with their claws. Excluding snakes, whereas you call these animals beasts because of the violence with which they rage, you call them wild animals, for they enjoy their natural freedom and are carried away by their instincts. Namely, their will is free, they wander hither and tither wherever their instinct leads them. The word for lion, leo, is of Greek origins and has been adapted into Latin. In Greek, the word for lion is leon/λέων; therefore, it is a spurious and partly corrupted noun. In Latin, indeed, a lion is interpreted as rex (king), for it is the king of all beasts.

There are three types of this species, among which the short and curly-maned ones are tame, whereas the ones with a simple, long mane are naturally violent (ferocious), which is indicated by their tails. Their virtue lies in their chest, whereas their strength lies in their head. They fear the noises of wheels, but fire even more. The lion, by its nature, cannot mix its proud ferocity with other beasts.

habere. Prima natura est quod per cacumina mon-
tium amat ire. Et si contigerit ut queratur a ve-
natoribus; venit ad eum odor venatorium. et cum cau-
da sua tegit post tergum vestigia sua. Tunc vena-
tores eum investigare nequeunt. Sic et salvator
noster scilicet spiritualis leo de tribu iuda. Radix iesse. fi-
lius david cooperuit vestigia sue caritatis in celis.
donec missus a patre descenderet in uterum virginis ma-
rie. et salvaret genus humanum quod perierat. et
hoc ignorans diabolus. scilicet humani generis ini-
micus; quasi purum hominem ausus est temptare. Etiam
hoc ignorantes qui sursum erant angeli; eo ascenden-
te ad patrem dicebant ad eos qui cum eo ascende-
bant. Quis est iste rex glorie;

apertos habere perhibetur. Sic et dominus noster cor-
poraliter obdormiens in cruce; sepultus est. et deitas
eius vigilabat. Sicut dicitur in canticis canticorum
Ego dormio et cor meum vigilat Et in psalmo. Ecce
non dormitabit neque dormiet; qui custodit israhel.
os; generat eos mortuos. et custodit eos tribus
diebus. donec veniens pater eorum insufflat in faciem eorum
et vi vivificat eos. Hic omnipotens pater dominum nostrum
iesum christum tercia die suscitavit a mortuis; dicente
iacob [ ] dormitabit tamquam leo. et sicut catulus leonis

The first nature of the lion is that it loves to wander about the mountaintops. If it happens to be tracked down by hunters, it is able to scent them and with its tail, it covers its tracks behind its back. Then the hunters cannot trace it. Similarly, one may know that our Saviour, the spiritual lion from the Tribe of Judah, the Root of Jesse, the Son of David, covered the traces of His love in Heaven until He descended into the womb of the Virgin Mary by the will of His Father in order to save the perishing humankind. As you may know, the devil, the enemy of man, dared tempt him as if He were an ordinary man. Even the angels on high, not knowing this, when He ascended to the Father, said to those who were ascending with Him, "Who is this king of glory?" Its second nature is that it is said to keep his eyes open whilst it is sleeping. Similarly, Our Lord was buried, whilst asleep bodily on the cross, but His divine nature remained vigilant. As it is written in The Song of Songs NKJV 5:2-16 “I sleep, but my heart is awake”, and in The Psalm NKJV 121:4: “Behold, He who keeps Israel Shall neither slumber nor sleep.”

Its third nature is that when a lioness gives birth to her cubs, she begets them dead and keeps them for three days until their father comes and breathes onto their faces and brings them back to life. Similarly, the Almighty Father raised Our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead on the third day, as predicted by Jacob “He will not sleep as a lion, nor will he slumber, and just like a lion's cub

suscitabitur. Circa hominem leonum natura est ut non
lesi nequeant irasci. Ad cuius exemplum rationabiles homi-
nes respicere debent. qui non lesi irascuntur. et innocentes
opprimunt. Cum iubeat christiana lex dimittere liberos. Patet
enim leonum misericordia exemplis assiduis. Prostra-
tis enim parcunt. captivos obvios repatriare permittunt.

In viros potius quam in feminas seviunt. Infantes non nisi
magna fame perimunt. Pariter omnes parcunt a sagina.

Primum quod alternis diebus potum. alternis cibum ca-
piant. Ac frequenter si digestio non est insecuta; solite
cibationi supponunt diem. Tunc quidem carnes iusto
amplius devoratas; conggregrant. et insertis in ora un-
guibus sponte eas pertrahunt. Sane et cum fugiendum
est in sacietate idem faciunt. Senectam leonum defec-
tio probat dentium. Aversi coeunt. Nec hii tantum;
sed et linces et cameli. et elephanti. et rinocerotes. et tigri-
des. et leene. Fetu primo catulos quinque educant. Deinde
per singulos numerum decoqunt. annis insequentibus et
postremo cum ad unum pervenerint; materna fecun-
ditas rescinditur. Sterilescunt in eternum. Leo ci-
bum fastidit hesternum. et ipsas sue esce reliquias
adversatur. Que autem ei se scire fera audeat cuius

he will be brought back to life”. Concerning the nature of lions towards humans, they cannot rage unless they are harmed or wounded. Rational men should follow suit, they should not rage when unharmed and not oppress the innocent, even though the Christian law sets them free. The lion’s mercy shows itself from endless examples. They spare the fallen and allow the captives in battle to return to their homeland. They mainly attack men rather than women. They only kill infants when extremely hungry. They equally abstain from overfeeding. First, they drink and feed on alternate days. If digestion does not often follow, they usually abstain from eating for a day. Then, when they devour an excessive amount of meat, they gather it and pull it out by inserting their claws spontaneously in the mouth. Indeed, when it is necessary to flee due to satiety, they do the same. Missing teeth reveal the lion’s old age. They mate while facing away. Not only lions, but also lynxes, camels, elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, and lionesses. The latter raise five cubs at first. Then they reduce the number each year, and finally, when they reach one, the maternal fertility diminishes. They become sterile forever. Lions despise the previous day’s food and turn away from their own leftovers. However, no wild beast dares to face the lion,

voci tantus naturaliter terror ut multa animati-
um que per celeritatem possunt evadere eius impetum;
rugitus eius sonitu velut quadam attonita atque vic-
ta deficiant. Leo eger simiam querit; ut devoret. quo
possit sanari. Leo; gallum. et maxime album veretur.
Leo quidem est rex ferarum. exiguo scorpionis aculeo exa-
gitatur et veneno serpentis occiditur. Leontopho-
nos vocari accipimus modicas bestias Que capite ex-
uruntur. ut earum cineris aspergine carnes sint
pollute. Iacteque per compita concurrentium semitarum; leo-
nes necent. si quantulumcumque ex illis sumpserint.
Propterea leones naturali eas premunt odio. atque ubi
facultas data est; morsu quidem abstinent. sed dilani-
atas exanimant pedum nisibus

whose voice causes such terror that many creatures that can escape its attack through their speed will tremble and become bewildered by its roar, as if overcome by force. A sick lion seeks out a monkey to devour, so it can be healed. A lion fears the cock, especially the white one. The lion is indeed the king of beasts, but it is irritated by the sting of a small scorpion and is killed by the venom of a snake. We have heard of small beasts called leontophones²: when captured, they are burnt; meat contaminated by a sprinkling of their ashes and thrown down at crossroads kills lions, even if they eat only a small an amount. Therefore, they naturally hate each other, and where the opportunity is given, they abstain from biting them but kill them by the pressure of their paws.

Endnotes

1 Revelation 5:5: “Then one of the elders said to me, “Do not weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed. He is able to open the scroll and its seven seals.”

2 Leontophones are supposedly small animals that could kill a lion if they are eaten. It comes from Greek leonthophonos (lion killer). When their body is burnt, their ashes can be sprinkled on a piece of meat to bait the lion.

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Tiger, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f6r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

Although tigers were not native species in the regions where Christianity originate and spread, the symbolism associated with them may have been influenced by Eastern traditions.

Tigers might be associated with virtues such as strength of character, resilience and the ability to overcome challenges as well as solicitude of a mother towards her offspring and willingness to risk everything to save them.

In Latin literature, tigers are mentioned in relation to Hircania, a land between Iran and Turkmenistan where tigers abounded there apparently in the Classical Age. Even Virgil, in the Aeneid (IV.365-7), mentions the tigers of Hircania and writes about Dido accusing Aeneas:

“Nec tibi diva parens generis nec Dardanus auctor,
perfide, sed duris genuit te cautibus horrens
Caucasus Hyrcanaeque admorunt ubera tigres. (IV.365-7)”

“You had neither a goddess for a parent, nor was Dardanus the author of your race, faithless one, but the horrible Caucasus produced you from hard crags, and Hyrcanian tigers nursed you."

nominant perse. greci et medi sagittam. Est enim
bestia variis distincta maculis. virtute et veloci-
tate mirabilis. Ex cuius nomine flumen tigris appel-
latur. quod est rapidissimus omnium fluviorum. Has ma-
gis hircana gignit. Tigris vero ubi vacuum rapte sobolis
repperit cubile. ilico raptoris vestigiis insistit. At ille
quamvis equo vectus fugaci; videns tamen velocitate fere se pos-
se preverti; nec ullum evadendi suppetere sibi posse subsi-
dium; terna huiusmodi fraude molitur. Ubi se contigu-
um viderit; speram² de vitro proicit. At illa ymagi-
ne sua illuditur. et sobolem putat. revocat inpetum;
colligere fetum desiderans. Rursus inani specie re-
tenta; totis se ad comprehendum equitem viribus fun-
dit. Et iracundie stimulo velociter fugienti iminet.

Iterum ille spere obiectu sequem retardat. nec tamen
sedulitatem matris memoria fraudis excludit. Cassam
versat ymaginem. et quasi lactura fetum residet.

Sicque pietatis sue studio decepta; et vindictam amit-
tit et prolem;

The tiger is called so because of her fast running. In fact, the Persians, the Greeks and the Medes³ nicknamed her arrow. It is indeed a beast recognisable by her various spots, which possesses wonderful strength and swiftness. From her name, the river Tigris derives, owing to its being the swiftest of all rivers. The land of Hircania⁴ is the birthplace of more of these beasts. When the tiger has discovered her lair empty after her cub has been stolen, she immediately gets on the thief’s trail. When the thief realises that the beast outruns his horse, however fast such horse may run, and sees that no means of escape is available, he resorts to deception thrice. When he sees that the beast is approaching, he throws down a glass sphere; then the tiger is deceived by her own image and thinks it is her cub; therefore, she withdraws her attack, desiring to gather the cub. Restrained by the false image of the cub, she tries with all her might to catch the horseman. Carried away by her anger, the tiger quickly chases threateningly the fleeing horseman. The horseman slackens the chase by throwing down the sphere a second time; nevertheless, the memory of the deception does not banish the mother’s solicitude. She turns the deceptive image over and sits down with the intention of suckling her cub. Thus, deceived by her own affection, she loses both her revenge and her cub.

Footnotes

1 Fŭga means both flight/ escape and fast running in Latin.

2 Sphaera/spaera: sphere

3 The Medes were an ancient Iranian population who spoke the Median language and inhabited a land known as Media between Western and Northern Iran.

4 Hyrcānia was a historical region composed of the land South East of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan. In Latin literature, it was related to tigers, which were abundant there in the Classical age.

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Leopard, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, f7r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The word leopard comes from Late Latin leopardus, leo is lion and pardus the panther due to their crossbreeding. The Romans imported this beast to Europe in order to use it in amphitheatres, particularly in the venationes games, which involved the hunt and killing of wild animals and during death sentences, damnatio ad bestias, where prisoners were devoured by these wild beasts.

Leopards are mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (Natural History) and also by Isidore of Seville in his Etymologies¹, describing the leopard as “having mottled coat, speckled with white like a giraffe’s. Swift and headlong for blood, they kill their prey with a single leap”.

In Latin Literature, Virgil mentioned the leopard in The Aeneid (Book VII, lines 348-349): "Next came the spotted leopard, here displayed, / And great with young a Tyrian huntress led”. Virgil describes a leopard being led by a Tyrian² huntress in the context of a description of a parade or procession.

In Medieval Christian religion, the leopard acquires a demonic reputation. Apparently, the Antichrist is supposed to resemble a pard. In Revelations 13:2, John describes the beast from the sea as resembling a leopard: “And the beast that I saw was like a leopard; its feet were like a bear’s, and its mouth was like a lion’s mouth. And to it the dragon gave his power and his throne and great authority”.

_Pardus est genus varium. ac velocissimum et preceps
ad sanguinem. Saltu enim ad mortem ruit. Pardus
ex adulterio leene nascitur et pardi. et terciam origi-
nem efficit. Sicut et plinius in naturali historia dicit.
leonem cum parda aut pardum cum leena concum-
bere. Et ex utroque coitu degeneres partus creari. Ut mu-
lus et burdo³

The leopard is a species with mottled skin: it is extremely swift and longs for blood, for it kills its prey with one leap. The leopard is born from the adulterous crossbreeding of a lioness and a panther, creating a third species. As Pliny⁴ states in his Natural History, a lion with a female panther or a panther with a lioness can copulate. From both unions, degenerate offspring are begot. Such is the example of a mule and a hinny.

Panther, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff7r-9r. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The panther was one of the most important animals in Medieval Bestiaries. The panther is indeed the embodiment of Christ. Christian symbolists saw the panther as a chaste animal. Within the beast, they saw the image of Christ, who lived amongst men and amidst sin and was not affected by the contagious corruption.

The Christ symbolism is obvious from the fact that the panther sleeps for three days and then awakens, it roars and its mouth emanates a sweet fragrance and all other animals get closer. Similarly, Christ remains for three days in the sepulchre, then rises from the dead and His Verb emanates a sweet odour.

The panther was described as having a dual nature, both fierce and gentle. Similarly, Christ possessed a dual nature, both divine and human. The gentleness of the panther represented Christ’s mercy and compassion whereas the panther’s fierceness represented Christ’s strength and power.

The beast was also associated with the ability of Christ to fight against sin and evil and to attract souls to him in order to save them and to conquer the forces of darkness.

quidem colorem habens et speciosissimum nimis
et mansuetum. Philosogus de eo dicit. qm solum draco-
nem habet inimicum. Cum ergo commederit¹ et sauciatum²
fuerit. recondit se spelunca sua et dormit. Post
triduum vero exurgit a sompno(changed from sumpno) et emittit magnum
rugitum. et ab ore eius odor suavissimus exit. velut
omnium aromatum. Cum enim audierint eius

The panther is a multi-coloured, exceptionally beautiful and gentle animal. The Physiologus³ described it as having only one enemy, the dragon. Therefore, after feeding and being replete, it retreats to its cave and sleeps. After three days, it awakes from its sleep and gives a great roar, and its mouth emanates a very pleasant scent, like that of all spices. When other animals hear its

vocem cetera animalia; propter suavitatem odo-
ris sequntur eam quocumque ierit. Solus autem dra-
co audiens eius vocem timore perterritus fugit in caver-
nis terre. Ibique non ferens odorem; torpescit.

dens de celis eripuit nos de potestate diaboli. et per
incarnationem suam sociavit nos sibi in filios. cepit
omnia. captivamque ducens captivitatem; dedit do-
na hominibus Quod sit animal varium; significa-
tur sicut dictum est per prophetam salomonem de christo. Qui
est sapientia dei patris. Spiritus intelligibilis. Spiritus uni-
cus. multiplex. verus. suavis. aptus. clemens. fir-
mus. stabilis. securus. omnia potens. omnia pros-
piciens. Quia speciosum animal sit. david dicit de
christo. Speciosus forma pre filiis hominum. Mansuetum autem
animal; ysaias quoque dicit. Gaude et letare filia syon
predica filia ierusalem. quia rex tuus venit mansuetus. Cum
saturatus fuerit abscondit se in speluncam suam et
requiescit et dormit. Quia dominus noster
ihesus christus cum satiatus fuisset iudaicis illusionibus
id est flagris. alapis. iniuriis. contumeliis. spinis.
manibus in cruce suspensus. clavis confixus. felle et aceto

roar, they follow it wherever it goes owing to the sweetness of its scent. However, the dragon alone, crazed with fear when hearing the roar, flees into the caves of the earth. Unable to bear the scent, the dragon becomes torpid. Thus, our Lord Jesus Christ, the true panther, descending from Heaven, delivered us from the power of the devil. Through His incarnation, He united us to Himself as sons, “when he ascended on high he led a host of captives, and he gave gifts to men (Ephesians 4:8)”.

As mentioned by the prophet Solomon, the fact that the panther is multi-coloured signifies that Christ is the wisdom of God, the Father, the intelligible Spirit, the unique Spirit, manifold, true, gentle, fitting, merciful, resolute, stable, secure, almighty as well as all-seeing. Since the panther is a beautiful animal, David says of Christ, 'Thou art fairer than the children of men.' (Psalms, 45:2). Isaiah also says about this gentle beast: 'Rejoice and be glad, daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem; because your king comes to you, meek ...' (see Isaiah, 62:11; Zechariah, 9:9; Matthew, 21:5).

When replete, the panther hides in its cave, rests and sleeps. When our Lord Jesus Christ had been sated with the Jewish mockery, that is, with whips, slaps, invectives, thorns, hands on the cross, nails pierced through, forced to drink gall and

potatus. et lancea perforatus. obdormiens requie-
vit in sepulcro. et descendit in infernum. illic mag-
num draconem ligans. Die autem tertio surgit a sompno
et emittit clamorem magnum fragrans suavitatem.

Sic et dominus noster iesus christus tertia die resurgens. a
mortuis sicut david(changed from davit) dicit; Excitatus est. tanquam dormi-
ens dominus. tanquam potens crapulatus a vino. et ex-
clamavit voce magna. ita ut audiretur in omni
terra sonus eius. et in fines orbis terre verba eius. Et
sicut de ore pantere odor suavitatis exit. et (odor-
suavitatis underlined) omnes bestie que prope sunt et que lon-
ge conveniunt. eamque sequntur; ita iudei qui aliquando
sensum habuerunt bestiarum sed prope per legem erant.
et que longe. idest gentes que sine lege erant audien-
tes vocem christi; sequntur eum cum propria voce dicen-
tes. Quam dulcia faucibus meis eloquia tua super mel
ori meo. Item de eodem. Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis.
propterea benedixit te deus in eternum. Et salomon.

Odor unguentorum tuorum super omnia aromata. Et pau-
lo post. Introduxit me rex in cubiculum suum(changed from suaum);

Opportet vos quamcitius. sicut adolescentulas. idest reno-

vinegar, and pierced with a lance, he found relief when he fell asleep in the sepulchre, and descended into hell, binding the great dragon⁴. On the third day, the panther arises from its sleep and gives a loud cry that emanated a pleasant fragrance. Similarly, our Lord Jesus Christ rose on the third day from the dead, as David says, 'He awakened as one out of sleep and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine.'(Psalms, 78:65). And Christ cried out in a loud voice, so that his sound was heard throughout the land and his words at the ends of the earth (see Romans, 10:18).

The odour of sweetness emanates from the mouth of the panther, and all beasts that are near and far follow it. Similarly, the Jews who once had an animal disposition but observed the law of Christ closely, and those who distanced themselves therefrom, that is, the nations without the law, follow Him and utter with their own voice when hearing the voice of Christ: 'How sweet are thy words unto my taste! yea, sweeter than honey to my mouth.' (Psalms, 119:103). Again of Christ: 'Grace is poured into thy lips; therefore God hath blessed thee for ever.' (Psalms, 45:2). Solomon says: 'How much better is ... the smell of thine ointments than all spices!' (Song of Solomon, 4:10). Shortly after, 'In the savour of thy good ointments ...we will run after thee.' (Song of Solomon, 1:3-4). A little after that: 'The king hath brought me into his chambers ‘(1:4).

After the consecration of His commandments, it behoves you to run as quickly as possible like maidens, that is, souls purified by baptism. It also behoves you

torum suorum currere. de terrenis ad celestia migrare.

Ut introducat nos rex in palatium suum. in ierusalem civita-
tem domini virtutum et in monte omnium sanctorum. Pantera
est bestia minutis orbiculis superpicta. ita ut ocula-
tis ex fulvo circulis nigra vel alba distinguatur; varieta-
te. Hec semel omnino parturit. cuius cause ratio mani-
festa est. Nam cum in utero matris coaluere tres catu-#
li maturis ad nascendum viribus pollent; odiunt temporum
moras. Itaque honeratam fetibus vulvam tanquam obstan-
tem partu lacerant unguibus. Effundit illa partum. seu
potius dimittit; dolore cogente. Ita postea corruptis
et cicatrice cesis sedibus. genitale semen infusum; non
habet acceptum. sed irritum resilit foras. Nam plinius
dicit. animalia cum acutis unguibus frequenter parere
non posse. Viciantur enim; intrinsecus se moventibus catu-
lis.

to renounce earthly things for heavenly ones, so that the king may lead us into His palace, into the city of Jerusalem, the city of the Lord of virtues, and onto the mountain of all the saints.

The panther is an animal adorned with small circular spots, so that it is distinquished by its black and white colouring with eye-shaped circles of yellow. It gives birth only once, and the reason for this is clear. When three cubs have fully grown in the womb of the mother, they become impatient because they are ready to come out; therefore, they tear the burdened womb with their claws as if they wanted to prevent the delivery. She sheds, or rather releases, the offspring, seized with pain. Thus, after the womb has been torn by the cubs, the genital seed, once infused, is ineffective and springs back outwards. Pliny says that animals with sharp claws cannot give birth frequently, for they are injured by the cubs moving inside the womb.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Panther, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast79.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

1 Cŏmĕdo in Early Latin.

2 Probably Late Latin for sătĭātum (replete, full up).

3 The Physiologus is a didactic Christian text written in Greek by an unknown author in Alexandria. It describes animals, birds, fantastic creatures, stones and plants, followed by moral anecdotes and allegorical stories. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus

4 The dragon is an allegory for Satan or evil in general. The idea of Jesus descending to Hell is associated with the Harrowing of Hell that suggests that Jesus descended to Hell to liberate all the righteous souls.

KAS 16/10/2024 KAS 16/10/2024

Antelope, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Rochester Bestiary, ff9r-9v. British Library MS. Transcription by Dr Patricia Steward. Translation and commentary by Gabriele Macelletti.

The antelope was sometimes associated with virtue and spiritual struggle. Due to its graceful and gentle nature, the antelope represented chastity and virtue as well as the importance of leading a virtuous and chaste life.

The watchfulness and the ability of this animal to detect danger symbolised the need for Christians to be spiritually vigilant and aware of the danger of sin and temptation.

The antelope’s two horns symbolised the Old and the New Testament, with which Christians could free themselves from vices and from the temptation of lust and other mundane pleasures.

nimis. Ita ut nec venator ei possit appropinqua-
re. Habet autem longa cornua; serre figuram ha-
bentia. ut possit resecare arbores altas et magnas
et ad terram prosternere. Cum autem sicierit¹ vadit ad
flumen magnum euphraten. Est autem ibi frutex qui
dicitur hericine habens virgulta subtilia. et prolixa.

Now, there is an animal called antelope and is very fierce indeed, insomuch that even a hunter cannot approach it. It has long horns that have a saw-like shape, so that it can cut down tall and large trees and lay them to the ground. When it is thirsty, it goes to the large river Euphrates. There are shrubs there that have delicate and long shoots, resembling a porcupine.² It begins to play with its horns in the bushes

et incipit ludere cornu ad hericinam. et dum ludit;
obligat cornua in virgultis eius. et diu pugnans;
cum se liberare non potest; exclamat voce magna

Audiens venator vocem eius; venit et occidit eum. Sic
et tu homo qui studes sobrius esse et castus; et spiritualiter
vivere; cuius duo cornua sunt duo testamenta. per que
poteris resecare et excidere omnia vicia; corporalia et
spiritualia. Cave ab ebrietate. Ne obligeris luxuria
et voluptate. et interficiaris a diabolo. Vinum enim et
mulieres apostatare faciunt homines a deo.

and whilst playing, its horns are entangled in the shrubs. It struggles for a long time and since it cannot free itself, it bleats loudly. Hearing its bleat, the hunter comes and kills it. Thus, you, Man, that you strive to be sober and chaste, and live spiritually, whose two horns are the two Testaments through which you can cut and eliminate all vices, both physical and spiritual? Beware of inebriation. Do not entangle yourself in lechery, pleasure, and do not let the devil tempt and destroy you, for wine and women lead men away from God.

Bibliography

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Antelope, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast137.htm