Swan, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Latin terms for swan, cygnus and ŏlŏr, both have roots in Greek language and mythology. The term ŏlŏr is specifically linked to the bird’s pure white plumage, as no black swan had been observed, aligning with the Greek word ὅλον (ólon), meaning entire or whole. Swans are celebrated for their melodious calls, which are said to fill the air with sweetness, inspiring the phrase "near the fords of the Meander, the white swan gathers."

Swans are famed for their beautiful singing, especially near their death, due to their long flexible necks allowing for a wide range of vocal modulations. In the Hyperborean mythos, swans are known to harmonize with citharists, enhancing the mystical ambiance with their harmonious songs.

The swan also holds symbolic significance for sailors, who regard it as a good omen, a belief supported by Emilianus who noted the bird's joyful nature in omens. Contrarily, in the biblical context of Leviticus, the swan is deemed unclean, symbolizing the duality of appearing pure while indulging in earthly vices. This dichotomy reflects a moral lesson on the contrast between outward purity and inner worldliness.

In medieval bestiaries, the swan was often depicted as a symbol of purity and beauty. Its white plumage was seen as a representation of innocence and soul's purity. However, there was also a recognition of the swan’s dual nature, where its beautiful exterior could mask inner flaws, aligning with the idea of false appearances.

The swan’s white feathers symbolized spiritual purity and chastity. This imagery was often used to contrast the pure, heavenly nature of the soul against the sinful, earthly body. Its life cycle, particularly the myth of the swan song—singing beautifully before death—was seen as an allegory for the Christian journey of life, culminating in a final act of divine beauty before entering eternal life.

Cignus latine; olor grece. Et dicitur olor quod sit
totus albus plumis. Nullus enim unquam vidit cig-
num nigrum. Olo enim grece; totum latine. Cignus;
a canendo est appellatus. eo quod carminis dulcedi-
nem modul vocibus fundit. Unde ad vada menan-
dri; concunt albus olor. Hec avis contra pericula in-
minentis sibi morits; dulcissimis vocibus sonat. Ideo
autem suavissime cignum canere dicunt; quod collum
longum et inflexum habet. et necesse est. eluctantem vo-
cem per longum et flexuosum iter; varias reddere mo-
dulationes. Ferunt autem in hiperboreis partibus precinentibus
citharedis; olores plurimos advocari. apteque ad-
modum concinere. Dicunt tamen quidem quod olor
latinum nomen est. Nam greci; cignus dicunt. Naute
vero sibi hunc; bonam prognosum facere dicunt.
Sicut emilianus ait. Cignus in auspitiis semper letis-
simus ales. Hunc optant naute; quia se non mer-
git in undis. Cignus in levitico inter inmundas
aves; reputatur. Quia nullus imitari debet con-
templativum cuius lectio est de celestibus et vita de ter-

The swan is called in Latin both cygnus[1] and ŏlŏr and such words have Greek origins. It is called ŏlŏr, for its plumage is entirely white. In fact, ὅλον/ólon means entire in Greek. No one has ever seen a black swan. The swan is named after its singing, for the melodious call it utters with melodious sounds effuses sweetness. Hence, the saying "near the fords of the Meander[2], the white swan gathers." This bird sings with the sweetest call against the dangers of its impending death. The swan is believed to be able to sing most sweetly, for it has a long and flexible neck and it is necessary for the struggling voice to produce various modulations through the long and winding path. In the Hyperborean regions, where citharists sing, many swans are summoned and sing along very harmoniously. However, the Latin name for the swan is said to be ŏlŏr. The Greeks call it cygnus or cycnus. Sailors, on the other hand, say this bird makes a good omen for them. As Emilianus[3] says, "The swan is always a very joyful bird in omens." Sailors desire it, for it does not sink in the waves. The swan is numbered among unclean birds in Leviticus, for no one should imitate a contemplator whose reading is about heavenly things and life about earthly things.

renis. In profundis terrenitatis et vitiorum sibi cibum queritantem. habentem spetiem mundicie et verba sane doctrine. seipsum tamen in inferioribus terre inmergentem.

In the depths of worldliness and vices, seeking food for himself, having the appearance of purity and words of sound doctrine, yet immersing himself in the lower parts of the earth.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Swan, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast237.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The swan was named cygnus or cycnus from the Greek word κύκνος/kýknos.

[2] The Maeander was a river of Caria in Asia Minor. It appears earliest in the Catalogue of Trojans of Homer's Iliad along with Miletus and Mycale. It is the present-day Büyük Menderes River in Southwestern Turkey. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Menderes_River

[3] Aemilianus of Cogolla was an Iberic saint, widely revered throughout Spain, who lived during the age of Visigothic rule. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aemilian_of_Cogolla