Wolf, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230
The most common interpretation of the wolf in medieval Christian symbolism is as the enemy of man and a representation of evil, sin, and temptation. This association stems from the predatory nature of wolves, which were seen as symbols of spiritual danger and moral corruption. The wolf's voracious appetite and cunning, hunting tactics were often used to illustrate the dangers of succumbing to sinful desires.
In addition to representing general sinfulness, the wolf was sometimes used metaphorically to symbolize false teachers or heretics who sought to lead Christians astray from true faith. This interpretation draws on biblical passages warning of "wolves in sheep's clothing" (Matthew 7:15) who deceive others with their false teachings.
Despite its negative connotations, the wolf could also symbolize redemption and transformation in some Christian allegories. The story of St. Francis of Assisi1 taming the wolf of Gubbio2, for instance, was interpreted as a metaphor for the power of faith and compassion to overcome hostility and bring about reconciliation.
In rare cases, the wolf was associated with positive qualities such as guardianship and protection. This interpretation drew on the medieval belief in the noble and loyal nature of certain wolves, particularly those that were tamed.
References to wolves in the Bible are numerous, with various passages using wolves as a symbol of danger, destruction, or moral corruption. For instance, in the Old Testament, wolves are often mentioned in the context of desolation and destruction as in Jeremiah NKJV 5:6:
“Therefore a lion from the forest shall slay them, A wolf of the deserts shall destroy them; A leopard will watch over their cities. Everyone who goes out from there shall be torn in pieces, Because their transgressions are many; Their backslidings have increased.” or in Ezekiel NKJV 22:27: “Her princes in her midst are like wolves tearing the prey, to shed blood, to destroy people, and to get dishonest gain.”
In the New Testament, as mentioned earlier, Jesus warns his disciples to beware of false prophets who come in sheep's clothing but are inwardly ravenous wolves as we see in Matthew 7:15:
“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves.”.
tur. Lupos enim dicunt illi; licos. sic a morsibus ap-
pellati. quod rabie rapacitatis quecumque. invenerint;
trucidant. Alii lupos vocatos aiunt quasi leo pus.
eoquod virtus leonis sit illis in pedibus. Unde et quic-
quid presserint; non vivit. Lupus a rapacitate di-
citur. Unde et meretrices lupas vocamus. eo quod aman-
tium bona vastant. Rapax autem bestia et cruores
appetens. In pectore vel ore; vires habet. In renibus
vero minime. Collum numquam retro flectere potest.
Aliquando fertur vivere preda; aliquando terra. nonnumquam;
vento. Lupa namque mense alio nisi in maio quando
fit tonitruum; catulos non gignit. Cuius astutia est.
tanta. ut in viscinia sua predam non capiat ca-
tulis suis. sed in longinquo. Quod si opus fuerit et noc-
tu predam querat. tanquam canis mansuetus passim ad
ovile pergit. et ne fortuitu sui flatus odorem sentiant ca-
nes. et evigilent pastores; contra ventum vadit. Et si ramus
aut aliquid sub eius pede tangendo sonaverit; ipsum pe-
dem castigat morsu aperto. Oculi eius in nocte lucent; ve-
lut lucerne. Cuius natura talis est. ut si prior hominem vi-
derit; vocem eripet. et despicit eum tanquam victor vocis
ablate. Unde subito tacenti; dicitur. Lupus est. in fabu-
la. Idem si se previsum se senserit; deponit ferocitatis auda-
ciam. et non potest currere. Famen diu portat et post mul-
ta ieiunia; multum devorat. Lupi toto anno non am-
plius quam dies .xii. coeunt. Lupos ethiopia mittit iiibatos
cervice. et tantum varios; ut nullum eis colorem dicant
abesse. Bruma autem comati sunt. estate nudi. Dicitur a’
quod homo cui vox ablata est quem lupus prior vidit. si de
ponit vestimentum suum pedibus conculcandum sumens in ma-
nibus duos lapides quos feriat alterutrum; recipiet vocem
suam. et lupus perdet audatiam suam. Solinus qui plura
de naturis rerum refert; dicit quod caude animalis huius;
amatorium est vel amatorium inest. added above vellus; perexiguum. quod dentibus ipse evellit
et proicit. si capi timuerit. Nec habet potentiam(corrected from potentiantiam) nisi illo
The word lupus, wolf, derives from Greek and has been transferred into our language. The Greeks called wolves λύκος/lýkos from the bites they inflict, and due to the rage of their rapacity, they slaughter whatever they encounter. Others say that wolves are called lŭpi sounding like leo (lion)+ pes, for the strength of a lion is in their legs (pēs). Hence, whatever they trample will not survive. Wolves are said to take their name from their rapacity. Hence, we also call harlots lŭpae, for they ravage the possessions of their lovers. This rapacious animal seeks blood and has strength in its chest or mouth, but not in the loins. Its neck cannot bend backward. Sometimes, the wolf is said to live on its preys, sometimes on earth, sometimes on the wind. A she-wolf, however, gives birth only in May, when thunder occurs. Its cunning is so great that it does not catch the prey for its own cubs in the vicinity but far away. When it needs to hunt at night, it goes everywhere like a tame dog goes here and there to the sheepfold, lest the dogs accidentally smell its odour and the shepherds awake, it goes against the wind. If a twig or anything under its foot makes a sound, it punishes its own foot by biting it. Its eyes shine at night like lamps. It has such a characteristic that if it sees a person first, it takes away their voice, watches them with disdain and feels victorious over them after their voice has been taken away. Hence, silence is associated with the presence of wolves in fables. If a wolf senses that it is noticed first from afar, it loses its ferocity and is not able to run. It remains starved for a long time and after many fasts, it devours aplenty. Wolves mate no more than twelve days throughout the year. In Ethiopia, there are wolves with manes on their necks that are so variegated that people say that they are definitely not lacking in colour. However, they have long hair in winter and are naked in summer. A man, whom a wolf has seen first and whose voice has been taken away, should take off his garment, put it under his feet to be trampled upon, take two stones in his hands, strike one against the other and he will recover his voice, and the wolf will lose its temerity. Solinus, who tells of the nature of things, states that if a wolf fears that it may be captured, there is a tiny tuft of hair serving as a love philtre within the tail of this beast, which the wolf tears off with its teeth and whereof it rids. The wolf has power as long as it is alive, or else its power is taken away.
qui semper humano generi invidet. ac iugiter circuit cau-
las ecclesie fidelium. ut mactet et perdat animas eorum. Quod vero
generat tonitruo primo mensis(corrected from mansis) maii. significat diabolum
prius in celo angelum fuisse. nunc deorsum apostatum factum
esse. Oculi eius in nocte lucent velut lucerne. quia quedam
diaboli opera. cecis et fatuis viris videntur esse pulcra et salubria.
Cum catulos gignit non nisi in longinquo predam capit; quia
eos diabolus bonis temporalibus fovet de quibus certus est in ge-
hennalibus claustris secum penas perpeti. Illos autem omnino inse-
quitur; qui bonis operibus ab eo elongant. Sicut de beato iob;
legitur. cui omnem substantiam. nec non et filios et filias abstulit;
ut a domino recederet cor eius. Quod numquam collum retro sine
toto corpore valet flectere; significat diabolum ad penitu-
dinis correctionem nuquam flecti. Quid agendum est. homini
cui lupus abstulit vires clamandi. qui vero non habet potestatem
vociferandi; perdit ausilium longe stantis. Sed quid agendum
est; deponat homo vestimentum suum pedibus suis concul-
candum. sumens in manibus duos lapides. quos feriat al-
terutrum. Qui deinde lupus audaciam sue virtutis per-
dens; fugiet. Homo vero tutus suo ingenio liber;
erit; sicut in principio. Spiritualiter hoc intelligen-
The Devil has the same nature as the wolf. He envies the human race and continually circles the cells3 of the faithful Church in search of souls to slaughter and corrupt. The fact that the she-wolf gives birth as soon as the first thunder of May is heard, it signifies that the devil was once an angel in heaven, and now he has become an apostate below, in the nether world. Its eyes shine at night like lamps, for certain works of the devil seem beautiful and beneficial to blind and foolish men. When the she-wolf gives birth to her cubs, she catches her prey only from afar, for the devil rewards with temporary goods those of whom he is certain that they will endure eternal torments in hell with him. He pursues altogether those who distance themselves from him by doing good deeds. As we read about the blessed Job, we learn that the Devil stripped him of his wealth and killed his sons and daughters, so that his heart might distance itself from the Lord. Those who cannot bend their neck backward without turning their whole body symbolise that the devil can never be subdued into repentance. What should a man whose power of shouting has been taken away by a wolf do? Those who do not have the power of shouting lose the help of those standing from afar. What is to be done? A man should take off his garment and trample upon it, taking in his hands two stones to strike one against the other. When the wolf loses its temerity coming from its power, it will flee. In truth, a man confident in his intelligence will be free, as he was in the beginning. This is to be understood
enim per lupum nisi diabolum. quid per hominem nisi peccatum. quid
per lapides nisi apostolos seu ceteros sanctos vel dominum nostrum
significare poterimus; Omnes enim per prophetam adamantini lapides dicti
sunt. Ipse enim dominus noster iesus christus in lege vocatur lapis offensionis
et petra scandali. De quo dicit propheta. Vidi virum stantem supra mon-
tem adamantinum. Antequam denique redempti essemus; sub potestate
inimici eramus. Vocemque clamandi perdideramus. Qm peccatis
nostris exigentibus; a deo non audiebamur. neque aliquem sanctorum
in auxilium nobis interpellabamus. Postquam vero clementissimus
deus gratificavit nos in filio suo; deposuimus in baptismo vete-
rem hominem cum actibus suis. ac induimus novum qui secundum deum
creatus est. Deinde sumpsimus lapides in manibus de quibus alteru-
trum ferimus. Quia sanctos dei qui iam in celis regnant cum
christo; nostri oris ferimus alloquio. ut ipsi aures pulsent iudicis. ac
veniam nobis impetrent criminis. ne nos quem nescimus absor-
beat baratrus. nostro gaudens interitu. Ethiopicis lupis proprium
est quod in saliendo ita nisus habent alitis. ut non magis pro-
ficiant cursu; quam meatu. Homines tamen numquam impetunt.
in spiritual terms and can be taken to a higher level as an allegory. What do we mean by the wolf if not the devil, by man if not sin, and by stones if not the apostles or other saints or our Lord? All are called adamantine stones4 through the words of the prophets. Our Lord Jesus Christ himself is called the stone of stumbling and the rock of offence in the law5. The prophet says of him, “I saw a man standing above an adamant mountain.” Finally, before we were redeemed, we were under the authority of the enemy, and we had lost the ability to shout and much as our sins required it, we were not heard by God, nor could we call any of the saints to our aid. After our most merciful God bestowed us his grace through His Son, in the act of baptism we rid ourselves of the old person we were before with all our deeds and we become the new person created in the image of God. Then, we took stones in our hands wherewith we strike one another. With our mouths, we exhort the saints of God, who now reign in heaven with Christ, in order that they may ring in the ears of our Judge and obtain forgiveness for our sins, lest the abyss that we do not know swallow us, rejoicing at our death. It is characteristic of Ethiopian wolves that they leap so high that they seem to have wings, going further than they would by running. However, they never attack humans.
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Footnotes
1 Legend has it that when St. Francis was living in Gubbio, he tamed a wolf that was terrorising livestock and humans by making the sign of the cross and commanding the wolf to cease its attacks. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_of_Gubbio
2 Medieval town in the province of Perugia, in the Region of Umbria, central Italy.
3 Cells refer to the rooms of monks and friars or priests in monasteries, churches and convents.
4 Zechariah KJV 7:12: “Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the law, and the words which the LORD of hosts hath sent in his spirit by the former prophets: therefore came a great wrath from the LORD of hosts.” Ezekiel KJV 3:9: “As an adamant harder than flint have I made thy forehead: fear them not, neither be dismayed at their looks, though they be a rebellious house.”
5 1 Peter KJV 2:8: “And a stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence, even to them which stumble at the word, being disobedient: whereunto also they were appointed.”
Romans KJV 9:33: “As it is written, Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling stone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed.”