Merganser, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The merganser, known in medieval times as mergus or mergŭlus, earns its name from its distinctive diving behaviour. When diving, this bird can sense changes in the underwater currents, which allows it to predict approaching storms. By heading toward the shore and seeking refuge, it signals that a severe tempest is imminent.

Symbolically, the merganser represents those who are dedicated to contemplation and possess the wings of contemplation but are still entangled in worldly desires. Despite its spiritual aspirations (symbolised by its wings), the merganser searches for sustenance in the depths, mirroring individuals who seek higher knowledge but are still concerned with earthly matters. Consequently, in the Book of Leviticus, the merganser is enumerated among the unclean birds, a metaphor for those whose spiritual pursuits are undermined by material concerns.

Merbus sive merbulus ab assiduitate mer-
gendi nomen havet. Sepe autem dimisso in pro- non in alio
fundo capite; aurarum signa merguli sub flucti-
bus; colligunt. et previdentes equoris tempestatem;
cum clamore ad eo(dots underneath) littora tendunt. Nam in pela-
go significant iam gravissimam tempestatem esse; cum
mergi ad littora venerint et confugerint;

The merganser, mergus, or mergŭlus in Vulgar Latin, is named after its diving habits. Often, when they have their head under water, mergansers sense gusts of wind and are able to foresee a storm at sea and, with a cry, they head towards the shore. When they approach the shore and seek refuge, it means that a severe storm is about to burst.

Significant igitur mergi contemplativos qui habent pen-
nam contemplationis; sed vitam cupiditatis.
Mergi enim de profunditate aque sibi cibum que-
runt. licet pennam habeant. et ideo in levitico;
inter inmundas aves reputantur. Qui enim con-
templationi vacant; ad superiora tendere de-
bent. non de inferioribus solliciti esse.

Therefore, the merganser symbolises those who are contemplative and have the wings of contemplation but live a life of cupidity. The merganser seeks food from the depths of the sea, although it has wings. Thus, in Leviticus, it is enumerated among the unclean birds. Those who devote themselves to contemplation should aspire to higher things and not be concerned with lower matters.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Merganser (Mergus), November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast104635.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Merbus and merbulus are transcription errors for mergus and mergŭlus in vulgar Latin, which is the genus of typical mergansers. The English word is merganser. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergus

[2] Wings often symbolize the ability to rise above or transcend earthly concerns, which aligns with the idea of contemplation and spiritual elevation. It conveys a sense of upward movement and aspiration toward higher ideals.

Dove, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The dove, a simple bird, symbolises the ideal qualities of holy preachers. Just as the dove lacks bile and stirs love with its gentle kiss, preachers are free from anger and bitterness. Even when they express anger, it is always measured and just. The dove's cooing, far from worldly melodies, echoes the preachers’ lament for sin, both personal and communal. Unlike aggressive birds, the dove does not harm with its beak, reflecting how preachers faithfully preserve the purity of the Scriptures, avoiding the distortions of heresy. The dove wisely selects the best seeds, much like preachers who choose the most edifying passages of Scripture to share. Just as the dove nourishes the chicks of others, preachers, through their sermons, nurture those lost in sin, guiding them back to Christ.

The dove's habit of hiding by streams to escape hawks is mirrored by preachers who, when faced with temptation, immerse themselves in Holy Scripture to find refuge. Defending itself with its wings, the dove represents preachers who arm themselves with the teachings of the Church Fathers. Its nest in the clefts of rocks symbolises preachers who find refuge in the wounds of Christ, building a spiritual shelter for themselves and others. The dove's ability to recover lost sight reflects the preachers’ role in restoring lost Church doctrine through the Holy Spirit, as seen in David's recovery of his prophetic spirit.

Doves fly in flocks, symbolising how preachers, united in the Catholic faith, move together toward good deeds and virtues. The more they engage in these good works, the closer they draw to God.

They were seen as symbolic of purity and innocence. Their white feathers and gentle nature made them perfect symbols for virtues like chastity and meekness. In Christian art and literature, they were often depicted as a symbol of the Holy Spirit, based on the New Testament description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove during the baptism of Jesus (Matthew 3:16 , Mark 1:10 , Luke 3:22 , John 1:32 ).

Doves also symbolised peace, both in the sense of inner spiritual peace and in the broader context of peace among nations. This idea comes partly from the story of Noah’s Ark, where a dove brought back an olive branch as a sign that the floodwaters had receded and peace was restored to the Earth (Genesis 8:11 ).

In Christian iconography, it is most often associated with the Holy Spirit, as mentioned earlier. It also represents the soul’s aspiration toward God and the peace that comes from divine grace. The dove’s nesting in safe places, as described in medieval bestiaries, symbolises the believer’s refuge in the wounds of Christ and its ability to recover lost sight reflects the restoration of spiritual vision through divine intervention.

Columba simplex avis est, felle caret, et osculo;
amorem concitat. Ita predicatores sancti carent
ira. et amaritudine, quia licet irascantur; tamen
non dicitur ira cum rationabiliter irascantur.
Habet gemitum pro cantu. Ita predicatores pro-
cul a moto cantus et amore seculi; gemunt pro
suis et aliorum peccatis. Nec lacerat rostro. Et

The dove is a simple bird. It does not have a bile[7] and arouses love through its kiss. Similarly, holy preachers are lacking in anger and bitterness; although they may become angry, their anger is not regarded as true anger when it is reasonable. Doves coo when they cry. Thus, preachers are far from the melodious singing and love of the world; they lament for their own sins and those of others. The dove does not harass you with its beak.

hoc bene convetit predicatoribus qui sanc-
tas scripturas non corrumpunt sicut hereti-
ci faciunt. Meliora grana eligit. Eodem modo ipsi
meliores sentencias scripturarum eligunt. Alie-
nos pullos nutrit. Ita predicatores filios huius secu-
li alienatos a deo per peccatum suis predicatio-
nibus nutriunt trahentes eos ad christum. Iuxta
fluenta sedet ut viso accipitre; se demergat;
et sic evadat. Similiter iuxta sanctas scripturas
predicatores habitant, ut viso impetu et tempta-
tione diaboli in illis scripturis demergantur,
agendo scilicet iuxta precepta scripturarum
et sic evadant. Alis se defendunt. Ita predicato-
res sententiis patrum se muniunt et defendunt
In foraminibus petre nidificant, sic et predicatores
in vulneribus id est in fide vulnerum christi de quo dicitur,
petra autem erat christus; nidum id est indumentum sibi et illis
faciunt. Habet et hanc naturam ut visionem amis-
sam recuperet. Ita predicatores ecclesie rationem inter-
missam per aliquod peccatum; dono spiritus sancti
recuperant. Sic et david qui spiritum prophetie quem

This suits preachers well who do not corrupt the holy scriptures as heretics do. The dove chooses better seeds. Similarly, preachers select the better passages of the scriptures. The dove nourishes the chicks of others. Similarly, preachers, through their preaching, nourish those alienated from God by sin, drawing them to Christ. The dove sits by the streams to hide underwater from hawks. Similarly, preachers always carry the Holy Scriptures so that, upon seeing the onslaught and temptation of the devil in those scriptures, they may immerse themselves therein, acting according to the precepts of the scriptures and thus escape. The dove defends itself with its wings. Similarly, preachers arm and defend themselves with the teachings of the Church Fathers. The dove nests in the clefts of a rock. Similarly, preachers dwell in the wounds, that is, in the faith of Christ’s wounds whereof it is said: “the rock was Christ” ; they make a nest, that is, a covering for themselves and for others. The dove also has the ability to recover lost sight. Similarly, preachers regain the doctrine of the Church, lost through sin, by means of the Holy Spirit. Thus, David, who had lost the prophetic spirit, recovered it.

amiserat; recuperavit. Item, gregatim volat. Sic
predicatores gregatim fidem catholicam tenentes
tendunt gressibus bonorum operum atque virtutum.
Nam quot bona opera facimus; tot gressibus ad deum
properamus.

Furthermore, the dove flies in flocks. Similarly, preachers, clinging to the Catholic faith in flocks, direct their steps toward good deeds and virtues. The more we perform good deeds, the more we get closer to God.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dove, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast253.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Matthew NKJV 3:16: When He had been baptized, Jesus came up immediately from the water; and behold, the heavens were opened to Him, and He saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and alighting upon Him. And suddenly a voice came from heaven, saying, “This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.”

[2] Mark NKJV 1:10: And immediately, coming up [a]from the water, He saw the heavens [b]parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove.

[3] Luke NKJV 3:22: And the Holy Spirit descended in bodily form like a dove upon Him, and a voice came from heaven which said, “You are My beloved Son; in You I am well pleased.”

[4] John NKJV 1:32: And John bore witness, saying, “I saw the Spirit descending from heaven like a dove, and He remained upon Him.

[5] Genesis NKJV 8:11: And he waited yet another seven days, and again he sent the dove out from the ark. Then the dove came to him in the evening, and behold, a freshly plucked olive leaf was in her mouth; and Noah knew that the waters had receded from the earth.

[6] Fĕl means bile/gall in the literal sense in Latin but means rancour, wrath or bitterness in the figurative sense.

[7] The notion of the dove being without bile likely originated from the symbolic representation of the dove as a symbol of peace, purity and innocence. Bile, associated with bitterness and anger in ancient and medieval medicine, was believed to be absent in creatures considered pure or peaceful, like the dove. This is more of a metaphorical or symbolic idea rather than a biological fact.

[8] 1 Corinthians NKJV 10:4: and all drank the same spiritual drink. For they drank of that spiritual Rock that followed them, and that Rock was Christ. In this passage, the Apostle Paul is drawing a parallel between the Israelites in the Old Testament, who drank water from the rock provided by God during their wilderness journey, and Christ as the spiritual source of life for believers. The "Rock" in this verse symbolises Christ as the foundation and source of spiritual sustenance.

Turtledove, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The turtledove, named after its distinctive call, is a symbol of purity and fidelity. This reserved bird prefers the solitude of mountain ridges, deserts and forests, shunning human settlements. In winter, it seeks refuge in the hollow trunks of trees until summer's return. To shield its chicks from predators, it places squill leaves over its nest, as wolves are said to avoid these leaves.

The turtledove's commitment to chastity, even after losing its mate, serves as a powerful symbol. Unlike some biblical advice that encourages younger widows to remarry and manage households to avoid scandal, the turtledove exemplifies unwavering faithfulness. It remains devoted to its lost companion, experiencing deeper sorrow from its death than joy from their shared love.

This bird's enduring loyalty—refusing to mate again and avoiding places associated with temptation—mirrors the strength of love described in the Bible. It is a living testament to the ideal of steadfast devotion, making it a poignant model for those striving for spiritual purity and commitment.

Turtur de voce vocatur. avis pudica. sem-
per in montium iugis et in desertis solitudi-
nibus. et in silvis commoratur. Tecta hominum
et conversationem fugit. Que in hiemis tempore
deplumata; in cavis truncis arborum commora-
tur donec redeunte estus tempore exeat. hec
nido suo ne pullos suos incurset lupus squil-
le folia superiacit. quoniam huius folia lupi fugiunt.

The turtledove is named after its call. It is a modest bird, always dwelling in the mountain ridges, in solitary deserts and in forests. It avoids human dwellings and society. During winter, when it loses its feathers, it stays in the hollow trunks of trees until the return of summer, when it emerges. To protect its chicks from wolves, it places squill leaves over its nest, as wolves flee from these leaves.

Hec amissa pari; alii non coniungitur. servans
iiidiiitatis castimoniam; plusquam indue tempo-
ris nostri. De quibus dicit apostolus. Volo iiidu-
as iuniores nubere. filios procreare. matres fami-
lias esse. nullam occasionem dare adver-
sario. Et alibi. Bonum est. illis si sic permaneant.
Quod si se non continent; nubant. Melius est
enim nubere quam uri. Discant igitur mulieres qui rationem
habent. imitari turtures que etiam sine ratio
ne create; castitatem servant. Turtur non uri-
tur flore iuventutis. non temptatur occasio-
nis illecebra. Turtura nescit primam fidem ir-
ritam facere. semper oculos amoris in coniuga-
lem premortuam figens. plus doloris contra-
hens ex sodalis morte; quam contraxerit suavitatis
ex viventis dilectione. Fortis enim ut mors dilec-
tio. Fertur quod post mortem paris non sede-
at nisi super arida et in viis ubi non fuerit viror
herbe. non in ramis virentibus. se semper amore
indignam iudicans. et omnia que luxuriam com-
movere solent; fugiens.

When it loses its mate, it does not mate with another but maintains chastity. The Apostle says thereof: 'I wish younger widows to marry, to bear children, to manage their households, and to give the adversary no occasion for slander.' Elsewhere: 'It is good for them to remain as they are. But if they cannot exercise self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to burn with passion.' Therefore, rational women should learn to imitate the turtledove, which maintains chastity, even irrationally. The turtledove is neither consumed by the bloom of youth nor is it tempted by the temptations of the moment. The turtledove remains always faithful, always fixing its gaze of love on its deceased mate, drawing more pain from the death of its companion than pleasure from their love whilst the companion was alive. Love is as strong as death. After the death of its mate, this bird is believed not to perch anywhere but on dry places and paths where no green grass grows nor on green branches, always considering itself unworthy of love and fleeing from all things that usually cause lust.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, turtledove, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast254.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Squill refers to a genus of flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, specifically Scilla or Squilla. Notably, Scilla maritima, also known as sea squill or squill, is a bulbous plant native to the Mediterranean region. The plant produces a tall spike of star-shaped, blue or white flowers. Its bulb has been historically used for medicinal purposes due to its expectorant and diuretic properties. In medieval texts, squill is sometimes mentioned in the context of its protective qualities; for example, it was believed that placing squill leaves around nests could deter predators like wolves. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilla

[2] 1 Timothy NKJV 5:14: "So I would have younger widows marry, bear children, manage their households, and give the adversary no occasion for slander." In this passage, the Apostle Paul advises that younger widows should remarry and focus on family life as a way to avoid giving opponents of the faith an opportunity to speak negatively. This advice is part of Paul's instructions on church leadership and conduct within the Christian community.

[3] 1 Corinthians 7:9: "But if they cannot exercise self-control, let them marry. For it is better to marry than to burn with passion." In this passage, the Apostle Paul is addressing questions about marriage and celibacy. He advises that if someone cannot maintain self-control and is consumed by passion, it is preferable for them to marry rather than struggle with unfulfilled desires.

Locust, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The locust is an insect known for its long back legs, which allow it to leap great distances, resembling a long spear. Besides locusts, other similar insects include cicadas, which are said to be born from cuckoo spittle and are found abundantly near the city of Rhegium, the modern Reggio Calabria in Italy. Locusts are considered clean animals and can be eaten; they have four legs, four feet and wings.

The lifecycle of a locust begins as a larva, brūchus. As it grows wings, it is first called attĕlăbus or attăcus and once it has been able to fly fully, it is known as a locust. Of these stages, the brūchus is the most destructive because it lacks wings and remains stationary, devouring everything around it.

To control locusts, people dig ditches to bury them, preventing them from being carried off by the wind into the sea and back to land, where even dead larvae can reproduce. This practice is echoed in Isaiah's words: "And the spoils will be gathered like the caterpillar is collected when the ditches are full of it."

The locust is famously associated with the biblical plagues in the Old Testament, particularly in the Book of Exodus. This connection made the locust a symbol of divine punishment and devastation. In medieval Christian thought, locusts were seen as instruments of God’s wrath against sin and disobedience.

They also symbolised the devil or demons, reflecting their ability to bring chaos and destruction. The swarming behaviour of locusts was likened to the way evil can spread and overwhelm.

It was often used as a warning to encourage repentance and spiritual vigilance. The devastation wrought by locusts served as a vivid reminder of the consequences of failing to live a righteous life.

Locusta est. et terrestris et maritima. et dicitur

The locust is both a land and water worm and is called

locusta quasi longa hasta. eoquod crura que retro
sunt; longa sunt. Et longiora sunt crura que re-
tro sunt per que psaltum facit. Alie autem sunt cica-
de; quam locuste. Cicade enim nascuntur; ex cuculorum
sputo. Hec in italia apud reginos multe sunt. nec usquam
alibi. Locusta quatuor habet crura et quatuor pe-
des. et mundum animal est. et ideo commedi potest. alas
habet. Et locusta brucis nascitur. et quousque alas
habeat sic vocatur. Cum atuem bruco ale crescere
ceperint; attelabus sive attacus dicitur. Cum autem
plene volare ceperit; dicitur. Nocet vero brucus plusquam
attelabus. et attelabus plusquam locusta. quia brucus
alis caret nec moveri potest. et sic omnia devorat
et nichil relinquit ubi insederit. Ideo fiunt fosse et
obruuntur locuste. Ne si non obruerentur; et cooperirentur;
a vento in mare raperentur. et ad terram reiecte. ex
ovis que vive conceperant; etiam mortue brucos gigne-
rent. De huiusmodi fossis mentionem facti ysaias dicens.
Et congregabuntur spolia ura sicut colligitur brucus
velut cum fosse plene fuerint de eo.

locust as if it were a long spear: the legs that are at the back are long. The legs that are at the back are longer, for it uses them to leap. However, there are other insects similar to locusts, the cicada, for example. Cicadas are born from the spittle of cuckoos. These in Italy, among the Regini[1], are numerous but nowhere else. The locust has four legs and four feet and is a clean animal. It can be eaten and has wings. The locust is born from the brūchus, a larva[2] and as long as it has wings, it is called a locust. When the brūchus starts to grow wings, it is called attĕlăbus or attăcus. When it begins to fly completely, it is called a locusta. The brūchus is more harmful than the attĕlăbus and the attĕlăbus more harmful than the locust, for the brūchus lacks wings and cannot move. Thus, it devours everything and leaves nothing behind wherever it is situated. Therefore, ditches are dug so locusts can be buried. If they were not buried and completely covered, they would be carried off to the sea by the wind and cast back to the land. From the eggs they have laid, even dead larvae, brūchi, would be produced. Isaiah mentions such ditches and says, "And the spoils will be gathered like the caterpillar[3] is collected when the ditches are full of it”[4].

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Locust, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast106142.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Inhabitants of Rhegium, the modern Reggio Calabria, in Calabria, Southern Italy.

[2] A kind of locust without wings.

[3] The confusion arises from the fact that the term brūchus is used in the text but the corresponding biblical reference in Isaiah uses the term caterpillar in many English translations. The discrepancy lies in how ancient and medieval writers might have used similar or overlapping terms differently than we do today.

[4] Isaiah NKJV 33:4: "And your plunder shall be gathered like the gathering of the caterpillar; as the running to and fro of locusts, he shall run upon them."

Swallow, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The swallow is a remarkable bird, known for its ability to catch and eat food mid-flight rather than while resting. It flies close to the ground in a graceful manner and is highly skilled in building its nest and raising its young. The swallow is undeterred by predators and flies over the sea during the winter. Ingeniously, it builds its nest by collecting twigs with its beak and using mud to glue them together, even using water-dipped wings to gather dust and create a solid, gap-free home for its young. Swallows also exhibit a unique medicinal ability, restoring sight to their blind young. Symbolically, the swallow can represent Christ, the apostles, or the prophets, each building and nurturing faith within the nest of the Church. This bird's swift flight, distinctive black back, white chest and bifurcated tail make it as visually striking as it is symbolically profound.

Hirundo dicitur quod cibos non sumit residens;
sed in aere escas capiat et edat. Garrula avis. per
tortuosos orbes et flexuosos et iuxta terram circuitus;
volans. et in nidis construendis educandisque fetibus;
sollertissima. habens etiam quiddam prescium; quod
lapsura deserat nec appetat culmina. A diris quoque avi-
bus non inpeditur; nec umquam preda est. Maria trans-
volans; ibi hyeme commoratur. Parva corpora; sed
pio sublimis affectu. et arte ingeniosissima. Indi-
ga rerum omnium; pretiosiores auro; nidos instruit;
quia cum sapientia nidificat. Quid enim sapientius
quam ut volandi vaga libertate potiatur. et hominibus

The swallow is named after its habit of not ingesting food whilst resting; instead, it catches and eats its food in the air. It is a chattering bird, flying in winding and meandering paths close to the ground. It is very skilled in building nests and raising its nestlings, possessing something foreboding, like an instinctive knowledge that it will not waver or abandon the dove nor will it yearn for the peak. This bird is not harassed by fierce birds and is never preyed upon. It flies over the sea where it stays during the winter. Swallows have a small body, pious and sublime feelings and are highly ingenious. They build their nests, which are more precious than gold, with great intelligence. What could be wiser than to enjoy the freedom of flight and to entrust their nests and their young to men and to the houses of men where no enemy dares to attack?

et hominum domiciliis nidum et pullos commen-
det. ubi subolem nullus hostis inpetere audet.
et pullos suos humane conversationi assues-
cat. Preterea nidum sine ullo adiutore artificio-
sissime componit. Legit enim festucas ore. easque luto
linit; ut glutinare possit. Sed quia lutum pedibus
deferre non potest; summitates pennarum aqua infun-
dit. ut facile hiis pulvis adhereat. et fiat limus
quo paulatim festucas vel minutos surculos(changed from furculos);
sibi colligat. atque adherere faciat. et sic totum nidum
facit; ut solidus sit. nec rimultus. ne grigus ad
pullos iiitrare possit. Hoc quoque preclarum ha-
bet et medicamenti insigne. quod pullis cecitate per-
cussis; novit lumina reformare. Hec avis velocis-
sima est. et nigra super dorsum. alba sum ventre.
vermiculata; sub gutture. habens caudam bifur-
catam. Nomine hirundiiiis aliquando dicitur christus ni-
dum ecclesie sapienter edificans. aliquando apostoli. in nido ecclesie
filios fide generantes. aliquando prophete in nido sinagoge
vel veteris testamenti; populos edocentes.

The swallow also trains its young for human interaction. Moreover, it craftily builds its nest unaided. It collects twigs with its beak and coats them with mud to glue them together. However, since it cannot carry mud with its talons, it dips the tips of its wings in water so that dust sticks to them and turns into slime wherewith it gradually gathers twigs or small branches, making the entire nest solid and without gaps so that no damp can enter and harm the young. This bird also has a remarkable and medicinal quality: it can restore sight to its young if they become blind. The swallow is very swift, with a black back and a white chest and is vermiculated below the throat. It has a bifurcated tail. Sometimes, the swallow symbolises Christ, who wisely builds the nest of the Church; sometimes, it represents the apostles, who generate the children of faith in the nest of the Church; and other times, it symbolises the prophets in the nest of the synagogue or Old Testament, who teach people.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Swallow, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast255.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Peacock, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The peacock is a symbol of splendour and mystery. Its feathers, shimmering like stars, are a tapestry of vibrant colours, making it a prized possession in the homes of the wealthy. The bird's long, radiant tail, reminiscent of sunbeams, has adorned the crowns of kings. With a small head topped by a crest and a grand, imposing body, the peacock moves with a mix of elegance and stealth.

Legends speak of its haunting cry, likened to that of a devil, while its dazzling feathers are said to resemble those of an angel. Despite its beauty, the peacock's flesh is notoriously tough, resistant to decay and difficult to cook—a challenge even for the harshest of cooks.

The female peacock, less vibrant than the male, carefully hides her eggs, visiting them often to protect them from their father, who might destroy them. In symbolism, the peacock represents a dual nature: the potential for true virtue or the mere appearance of it, akin to saints or hypocrites. One of the most common allegories associated with peacocks in medieval bestiaries was the idea of immortality and resurrection. This belief was based on an ancient notion that the peacock's flesh did not decay after death. In Christian thought, this symbolised the resurrection of the body and the eternal life promised by Christ. The peacock, with its undying beauty, became a symbol of the faithful's future glorified state in heaven.

The peacock was also symbolic of pride and vanity because of its ostentatious display of feathers. This was a cautionary symbol, reminding Christians of the dangers of excessive concern for outward appearances, which could lead to sin. The tension between the peacock's beauty and its unsettling cry was seen as an analogy for the contrast between superficial appearance and inner moral reality.

The Bible recounts that King Solomon's ships, in their grand voyages to Tarshish, returned every three years laden with treasures, including gold, silver, ivory, apes, and these magnificent birds, the peacocks.

Pavo de sono vocis nomen habet. In domibus di-
vitum habitans. pennas in stellarum modum
lucentes. et pulcra varietate diversorum colorum
distinctas habens. Gaudam longissimam et pul-
cherrime lucentem; trahens. que capita regum
et divitum ornat. et a servore solis descendit. Capi-
te parvo. et desuper plumis superexcrescentibus crista-
to; et corpore magno incedit. Vox eius quasi dia-
boli. penna quasi angeli. passus; quasi latronis.
capud quasi serpentis; vulgo dicitur. Cuius caro
tam dura est; ut putredinem vix senciat. nec facile

The peacock is named after the sound of its call. Living in the houses of the wealthy, it has feathers shining like stars and distinguished by the beautiful variety of different colours. Its very long and beautifully shining tail adorns the heads of kings and the wealthy and descends from the heat of the sun. With a small head and crested with feathers growing thereover, it advances with a large body. As it is commonly said, its cry is like that of the devil, its feathers like those of an angel, its walk like that of a thief, its head like that of a serpent. Its flesh is so tough that it hardly rots and is not so easily cooked.

coquatur. De quo quidam sic ait. Miraris quoci-
ens gemmantes explicat alas. si potes hunc sevo;
tradere dura coco. Mater ova sua abscondit. et
nidum in occulto loco frequentat. ne inveniens
pater ova; ea commedat. Femina non est adeo lucen-
tibus pennis nec adeo longis; ut masculus decora-
ta. Nomine igitur pavonis; significantur sancti. decore
virtutum perfecti. Vel ypocrite speciem virtutum
tenentes. Unde in regum et in paralipomenon[1] le-
gitur. quod naves regis salomonis ibant in tarsis;
cum servis yram semel in tribus annis. et deferebant
inde aurum et argentum. et ebur et simias et pavos.

Someone has said thereof: 'You marvel whenever it unfolds its jewel-like wings, but if you can, give it to the harsh cook.' The mother hides her eggs and constantly visits the nest in the hidden place where she hid them, so that the father does not find the eggs and eat them. The feathers of the female are not as bright as the feathers of the male. Therefore, the name of the peacock symbolises the saints, who can be perfect in the beauty of virtues or hypocrites with the appearance of virtues. Thus, it is read in the books of Kings and in the Chronicles that the ships of King Solomon went to Tarshish with the servants of Hiram once every three years and brought from there gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks.[2]

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Peacock, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast257.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Paralipomenon is another name for the books of 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles in the Bible coming from the Greek word Παραλειπομένων/Paraleipomenon which means “omitted." This title suggests that these books contain additional details not covered in the books of Samuel and Kings. Today, most modern Bible translations refer to them as 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles. These books primarily focus on the history of Israel.

[2] 1 King KJV 10:22: "For the king had at sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks."

Cock, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The cock, uniquely marked by its castration, symbolises a profound transformation and insight. In ancient times, castrated men were called Galli, a term evoking the cock's distinctive role. This bird was believed to be consumed by molten gold if its limbs were mixed with it. The hen, or gallīna, derives its name from the cock, or gallus, which, unlike men who often have one wife, is known for its numerous mates. The cock's crowing, a cherished sound of dawn, signifies more than just morning—it heralds the end of night and the beginning of hope.

The cock’s call at dawn marks a significant shift: thieves retreat, sailors find calm and the Church’s rock, Peter, is reminded of his denial and finds redemption. Peter’s three denials before cockcrow are a poignant reminder of his human frailty and subsequent repentance. As the cock transitions from vigorous calls in the dead of night to softer ones at daybreak, it mirrors the preacher’s journey from powerful warnings of judgment to the gentle announcements of grace and salvation.

Preachers, like the cock, must first discipline themselves and examine their own lives before guiding others. The cock’s methodical approach to its crowing serves as an allegory for the preacher’s need to adapt their message according to their audience’s state of mind. Just as the cock’s call heralds the light of dawn, the preacher’s message brings spiritual illumination, helping the faithful to awaken, repent and find renewal.

In the narrative of Peter’s denial and repentance, the cock’s crow represents a call to self-awareness and transformation. Peter’s tears of repentance and subsequent confession reflect the profound impact of divine light and grace. The cock’s call—whether interpreted as the Holy Spirit’s inspiration or the preacher’s guidance—awakens the soul to truth and redemption, prompting the faithful to reflect, repent and renew their commitment to righteousness.

Gallus a castratione vocatur. Huic enim soli inter
ceteras aves testiculi adimuntur. Veteres enim ab-
scisos; gallos vocabant. Cuius membra ut ferunt si au-
ro liquenti misceantur; consumi dicunt. A gallo;
dicitur gallina. Gallus non una sola fallina contem-
tus est; sed multas habet coniuges quibus omnibus bene
dnatur. Et homo unam uxorem vix regere potest;
Galli cantus suavis in noctibus et utilis. et multis est.
desiderabilis. Qui quasi bonus cohabitator. et dormi-
entem excitat. et sollicitum admonet et consolatur
viantem; dum processum noctis voce canora protesta-
tur. Hoc canente latro suas relinquit suas insidias;
timens diem. Hoc; ipse lucifer excitatur quodammodo ut
oriatur. celumque illuminet. hoc canente; mesticiam
nauta trepidus deponit. et tempestas nocturna de-
ponitur et mitescit; contra diem. hoc canente. ipsa ecclesie
petra. culpam suam diluit; quoniam priusquam gallus ter can-
taret; ter negando contraxit. Respexit enim dominus
petrum et error recessit. Pulla est negacio; secuta est
confessio. Istius cantu; spes omnibus redit. Egris relevatur

The cock is named after castration, for it is the only bird that has his testicles removed. The ancients called castrated men Galli[1]. It is said that if the limbs of this bird are mixed with molten gold, they will be consumed by it. The hen, gallīna, is named after the cock, gallus. The cock is not content with just one hen but has plenty of them and satisfies them all, whereas a man can barely manage one wife. The cock’s crowing is pleasant at night, useful and much desired. It is like a good companion, waking those who sleep, encouraging the anxious and comforting travellers, as it marks the progress of the night with its melodious call. When cocks crow, thieves abandon their ambush, fearing the day and it is as if the morning star were somehow awakened to rise and illuminate the sky. At cockcrow, a fearful sailor lays aside his own anxiety, the night storm desists and subsides as daylight approaches. At cockcrow, the very rock of the Church washes away his guilt, for before the cock crowed thrice, he denied thrice[2]. The Lord gazed at Peter and his error vanished. There was denial followed by confession. At cockcraw, hope returns to all. The suffering of the sick is relieved.

incommodum. Revertitur fides lapsis. Iesus titu-
bantes respicit. errantes; corrigit. Mucro latronis
conditur. Gallus se prius alis verberat. et sic; vocen-
dat. Profundiori nocte; altius et diutius et inso-
lenti clamat. Appropinquante autem die; omnia
temperantius agit. In die autem; silet. nisi quia
horas observat. Nomine galli predicator sig-
nificatur cui omnia predicta de natura galli; con-
veniunt. Unde iob. Quis posuit in visceribus sapienci-
am. vel quis dedit gallo intelligentiam; Predicato-
res enim in tenebris huius vite futuram lucem nuntiant
dicentes. Nox precessit dies autem appropinquavit et cetera.
Item. evigilate iusti et nolite peccare. Gallus prius noc-
turnas horas tacendo considerat et tunc clamat.
Quia prius predicator cuiuslibet naturam et vitam et
potentiam considerat. et cui que congruere conspex-
erit; predicat. Non enim una omnibus predicatio facien-
da est. sed unicuique iuxta opera sua. Quia levis subilus
equos mitigat. catulos instigat. Et herba que huic
animali vires prebet; alii mortem iiifert. Item gal-
lus profundioribus horis noctis; valentiores et
productiores cantus edit. Cum vero mane appropin-

Faith is restored to the shaken. Jesus gazes upon the wavering, corrects the erring. The thief's sword is sheathed. The cock first beats its wings and then utters its call. At dead of night, it crows higher, longer and more vehemently. However, as the day approaches, he does all things more moderately. By day, it is silent except when marking the hours. The name gallus symbolises preachers, to whom all the aforementioned traits of the cock's nature apply. Hence, Job says, 'Who has put wisdom in the inward parts, or who gave the cock understanding?'[3] Preachers in the darkness of this life announce the future light, saying, 'The night is far spent, the day is at hand,'[4] and so on. Again, 'Awake to righteousness and sin not.'[5] The cock examines the night hours first before crowing, just as a preacher first examines the nature, life and power of each person and then preaches that which befits each, for one kind of preaching does not befit all; each should be addressed according to their deeds. Although a gentle touch may soothe horses, the very same touch sets puppies; the herb that gives strength to one animal brings death to another, so too does the cock, during the deeper hours of the night, utter stronger and longer calls. As dawn approaches,

quat; leviores et minutiores et succisiores voces;
format. Quia dum iniquis qui in profundis pec-
catorum tenebris dormiunt predicant; altis et mag-
nis vocibus terrores futuri iudicii et gehenne; cla-
mant. Sed cum lux gracie illis apparet; voces ter-
roris mitigant. et blanda et suavia vite eterne;
annuntiant. et quantum lux fidei et gratie et vir-
tutum in eis plus crescit; tantum minutiora et sub-
tiliora de misteriis divinis predicant. Item gallus
antequam cantet; prius alas excutit. et semetipsum feri-
ens; vigilantiorem reddit. Ita predicatores antequam pre(dot underneath)-
dicatores an(all have dots underneath) predicent aliis; se in bonis acconiiibus
exercent. et pectora penitendo percutiunt. et se ver-
beribus castigant. et cum se prius a sompno torpo-
ris evigilant; demum ad alios evigilando clamant.
Unde apostolus. Castigo corpus meum et inservitu-
tem redigo. ne aliis predicans; ipse reprobus effi-
ciar. Hanc intelligentiam gallo solus deus dedit.
qui omnia pro ut vulte; iuste disponit. De hoc quoque
gallo sive spiritu sancto; in evangelio dicit dominus
petro. In hac nocte antequam gallus cantet; ter

it gives lighter, shorter and more fading calls, for preachers extol with great and loud voices the terrors of future judgment and hell when preaching to the wicked, who sleep in the deep darkness of sin. When the light of grace appears to them, they soften their tones and announce the sweet and gentle life of eternity. As the light of faith, grace and virtues increases within them, they preach a more subtle and refined version of the mysteries of the divine. Similarly, before crowing, the cock first shakes its wings and strikes itself, thus becoming more alert. In this way, before preaching to others, preachers first perform good deeds, striking their hearts in repentance and chastising themselves with blows. When they first awaken from the slumber of sluggishness, they then spur others to awaken. Hence the Apostle[6] says, 'I discipline my body and bring it into subjection, lest when I have preached to others, I myself should become disqualified.'[7] This ability to understand was given to the cock by God alone, who justly arranges all things as He wills. With regard to the cock or the Holy Spirit, the Lord says to Peter in the Gospel: 'This night, before the rooster crows, you will deny me three times.'[8]

me negabis. et infra. Postquam petrus ter negasset
dominum. primo videlicet ad vocem unius ancille. secundo ad
vocem alterius alcille(changed to ancille). tercio ad vocem virorum astan-
tium sicut habetur in matheo; statim subiungitur.
Et continuo; gallus cantavit. Et recordatus petrus
verbi iesu; quod duxerat priusquam gallus cantet. ter me
negabis; egressus est foras et flevit amare. Lucas addit
post trinam negationem. Et conversus dominus; res-
pexit petrum. Et recordatus est. petrus verbi domini
et cetera. Attende diligenter. Ecce enim media nocte ne-
gat petrus. gallicantu luce appropinquante; peni-
tet. Post resurrectionem sub luce ter confitetur se
amare; quem tem negaverat. Quia quod in mediis
tenebris oblivionis erravit; sperate iam lucis reiiie-
moratione deflevit. Et eiusdem vere lucis presentia.
plene quicquid mutaverat; correxit et erexit;
Prima ancilla. titubatio est; secunda; consensio. tertius
vir; actus. Sic et nos ter deum negamus; cum in ma-
lo delectamus. et cum consentimus; et cum mala agimus.
Item ter negamus; per malam cogitationem. et malum
sermonem. et malam operationem. Nec resurgere aut

And furthermore, after Peter had denied the Lord three times—the first time before one maid, the second time before another maid and the third time before some men standing by, as it is recorded in Matthew—it is immediately added, 'And immediately, the rooster crowed.'[9] Peter remembered the word of Jesus, which he had said unto him: 'Before the rooster crows, you will deny me three times.'[10] He went out and wept bitterly. After the third denial, Luke adds: 'And the Lord turned and looked at Peter, and Peter remembered the word of the Lord,'[11] and so forth. Mark well: Peter denied in the middle of the night but at cockcrow, with the daylight approaching, he repented. After the resurrection, under the light, he confessed thrice his love for the one whom he had denied, for that which he had erred in the deep darkness of forgetfulness, he now lamented with the remembrance of the hopeful light. With the very presence of the true light, he fully corrected and lifted himself up from that whereinto he had fallen. The first maid symbolises hesitation; the second one, consent and the third man, action. Similarly, we deny God three times: when we take delight in evil, when we consent to it and when we do evil deeds. We also deny thrice by evil thought, evil speech and evil action.

deflere possimus que male commisimus; nisi gallus nobis
centet. Idest nisi predicator docuerit nos viam ve-
ritatis. vel spiritus sanctus corda nostra sua inspiratio-
ne visitare dignetur. Et nisi peccatorem respexerit do-
minus oculo misericordie. et nisi fugiamus consortia
malorum. Unde petrus exeunt foras et flevit amare;
Tunc autem nobis gallus cantat; cum predicator vel spi-
ritus sanctus corda nostra ad compunctionem revocat.
Tunc incipimus flere; cum ignimur intus per scintillam
sciencie. Tunc foras eximus; cum extra consuetum
modum vivimus;

We cannot rise again or bewail the wrong we have committed unless the cock crows for us, that is, unless the preacher shows us the way of truth or the Holy Spirit deigns to visit our hearts with His inspiration. We cannot unless the Lord looks upon the sinner with the eye of mercy and we flee the company of the wicked. Hence, Peter went out and wept bitterly. The cock crows for us when the preacher or the Holy Spirit induces our hearts to repentance. We begin to weep when the spark of knowledge ignites us inwardly. We go out when we live beyond our accustomed way of life.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Cock, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast258.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The term "Galli" specifically referred to the priests of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, known as the Magna Mater (Great Mother) in Rome. These priests were often eunuchs who castrated themselves as part of their devotion to Cybele, following the myth of the god Attis, who was associated with Cybele and was also said to have been castrated. The Galli were known for their ecstatic and frenzied rituals, which included self-mutilation, loud music and dancing.

[2] This passage refers to the Apostle Peter, who is traditionally regarded as the rock upon which the Church was built, as Jesus declared in Matthew 16:18 ("You are Peter, and on this rock, I will build my church"). The passage also refers to the event recorded in the Gospels where Peter denied knowing Jesus three times before the cock crowed, as Jesus had predicted (e.g., Matthew 26:34, 26:69-75).

[3] Job NKJV 38:36: "Who has put wisdom in the mind? Or who has given understanding to the heart?" This verse is part of a passage where God is questioning Job, highlighting the vastness of divine wisdom and knowledge compared to human understanding.

[4] Romans NKJV 13:12: "The night is far spent, the day is at hand. Therefore let us cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armour of light."

[5] 1 Corinthians NKJV 15:34: "Awake to righteousness, and do not sin; for some do not have the knowledge of God. I speak this to your shame." In this verse, the Apostle Paul is admonishing the Corinthians to wake up from their moral and spiritual slumber, live righteously and avoid sin. He is also expressing disappointment that some among them lack the knowledge of God, which should be a source of shame.

[6] Paul the Apostle.

[7] 1 Corinthians NKJV 9:27: "But I discipline my body and bring it into subjection, lest, when I have preached to others, I myself should become disqualified."

[8] Matthew NKJV 26:34: "Jesus said to him, ‘Assuredly, I say to you that this night, before the rooster crows, you will deny Me three times.’"

[9] Matthew NKJV 14:68: "But he denied it, saying, ‘I neither know nor understand what you are saying.’ And he went out on the porch, and a rooster crowed."

[10] Matthew NKJV 26:34: Matthew 26:34: "Jesus said to him, ‘Assuredly, I say to you that this night, before the rooster crows, you will deny Me three times.’"

[11] Like NKJV 22:61: "And the Lord turned and looked at Peter. Then Peter remembered the word of the Lord, how He had said to him, ‘Before the rooster crows, you will deny Me three times.’"

Duck, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The duck derives its name fittingly from its frequent swimming, with ănăs stemming from ansĕr (goose) due to their similarity or shared habit. All birds experience a dual birth: firstly, the eggs are laid, secondly brought to life by the mother's warmth. The term ōva (eggs) is linked to moisture, just as ūva (grapes) are named for their internal juiciness. The distinction between hūmĭdus (moist outside) and ūvīdus (moist inside) is highlighted. Some believe the word ōvum has Greek roots but it is argued that ᾠά (eggs) lacks a crucial letter. While some eggs are empty, only those fertilized by a male are viable. Eggs possess such power that wood soaked in them will not burn and clothing mixed with them resists scorching. Additionally, eggs mixed with lime are believed to have the ability to repair shattered glass.

Ducks, as waterfowl, live both in water and on land, which was sometimes interpreted as a symbol of the dual nature of humans—the spiritual and the earthly. Their ability to move in different elements was seen as an analogy for the human soul's ability to navigate between the spiritual and material worlds.

The connection to water, a common symbol of purification and baptism in Christian tradition, could lead to its association with spiritual cleansing and renewal. The frequent swimming and washing of ducks might be seen as a metaphor for the washing away of sins through baptism.

They were also associated with vigilance because of their keen awareness and alertness. They are naturally cautious creatures and this trait may be interpreted as a reminder for Christians to remain watchful and guard against sin. Ducks, being humble and simple creatures, could represent the virtues of humility and simplicity, which were highly valued in Christian teachings. The duck's lack of grandeur or pretension could be a model for the Christian life.

Anas ab assiduitate natandi nomen aptum acce-
pit. Anseris nomen anas; dedit per dirivationem.
vel asimilitudine. vel quo ipsa natandi freque-
tiam habet. Omnium autem genera volu-
crum bis nascitur. Primum enim ova gignuntur. Inde
calore materni corporis formantur et animantur.
Ova autem dicta; ab eo quod sunt humida. Unde et
uva ab eo quod intrinsecus humore sit plena. Nam
humidi est quod externis humorem habet. Uvidum;
quod interius. Quidam autem putant ovum gre-
cam habere originem nominis. Illi autem dicunt
.oa.v. littera sublata. Ova autem quedam inani-
vento concipiuntur. sed tamen non sunt generabilia;
nisi que fuerint concubitu maculino concepta;
et feminali spiritu penetrata. Ovorum vim tan-
tam dicunt; ut lignum eo perfusum non ardeat
nec vestis quidem aduratur admixta. Fertur quoque
calce ovo admixta; vitri glutinare fragmenta.

The duck takes its name appropriately after its frequent swimming. The word ănăs comes from the word ansĕr (goose) by derivation[1], either due their similarity or to their frequent swimming. However, each species of bird is born twice. First, eggs are produced and then they are shaped and brought to life by the warmth of the mother's body. Eggs are called ōva, for they are moist, similar to how grapes, ūva, are named, for they are full of moisture inside. In fact, hūmĭdus refers to something moist on the outside, whereas ūvīdus refers to something moist on the inside. Some think that the word ōvum (egg) has a Greek origin but they claim that the Greek word ᾠά (ōiá)[2], eggs, is missing the letter v. Some eggs are produced empty but they are not fertile unless they have been conceived by a male's seed and penetrated by the female spirit. The power of eggs is said to be so great that wood therein soaked does not burn nor does clothing scorch when mixed therewith. It is also believed that mixing eggs with lime can glue together fragments of glass.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Duck, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast259.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The figure of speech known as derivation (also called paronomasia or etymological wordplay) involves using words that are derived from the same root or are etymologically related to create a rhetorical effect. In the text, "Ansĕris nomen ănăs" plays on the similarity between the Latin words ansĕr (goose) and ănăs (duck), suggesting that the word ănăs (duck) is derived from ansĕr (goose), emphasizing their connection through this linguistic relationship.

[2] Egg is Ancient Greek was translated as ᾠόν/ōión and the plural form for eggs was ᾠά/ōiá.

Ape, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Apes were animals often associated with the Devil who was similar in appearance and had no tail because He was bound to perish eventually. When a monkey gives birth to twins, she holds the one she loves in her arms and the one she despises on the back and when she is in danger and needs to flee she drops the cub she hates. Allegorically, this may be a metaphor for the renouncement of material affections as the only way for man to save his soul in the face of the danger of sin.

Apes were also associated with foolishness and mimicry. Apes mimic human behaviour without understanding its significance and this could be seen as a call for Christians to avoid mimicking vices and engaging in thoughtless actions.

They were also associated with lust, vanity, sin and human basic instincts, owing to their exaggerated and unrestrained behaviour that leads to immoral and lascivious conduct; therefore, Christians were admonished against having sinful desires.

Simie vocantur latino sermone. eoquod multa in
eis similitudo rationis humane sentitur. Hii ele-

Apes are called sīmĭae¹ in the Latin language, for there is great similarity with humans with regard to reason. They are

mentorum sagaces nova luna exultant. media et cava tris-
tantur. Natura simie talis est. ut cum pepererit gemi-
nos catulos; unum diligat. et alterum contempnat. Quod
si aliquando ut insequatur a venatoribus; ante se am-
plectitur quem diligit. et alterum collo portat quem
odit. Simia caudam non habet. cuius figuram diabo-
lus gestat. qui capud habet. caudam vero non habet;
Et licet simia tota turpis sit; posteriora tamen eius satis
turpia et orribilia sunt. Diabolus initium habuit cum
esset in celo angelus. Sed ypocrita et diabolus et do-
losus fuit intrinsecus. et perdidit caudam. quia totus
in fine peribit. Sicut ait apostolus. Quem dominus
iesus christus interficiet spiritu oris sui. Simia grecum
nomen est. idest pressis naribus. Unde et simias dicimus
quod suppressis naribus sint et facie feda. rugis turpiter
follicantibus. Licet et capellarum sit pressum habere nasum.
Circopetici² caudas habent. Hec sola discretio est inter
primas dictas. Zenophali et ipsi e numero simiarum
sunt; in ethiopie partibus frequentissimi. Violenti ad

perceptive about the elements, rejoice at the new moon and grieve at the moon’s waning. The nature of the ape is such that when the mother has given birth to twins, she loves one and despises the other. If she is pursued at any time by hunters, she carries in her arms the one she loves and on her shoulders the one she hates. The ape does not have a tail: the devil is in the shape of an ape, having a head but no tail in truth. Although the entirety of the ape is repulsive, its posterior is disgusting and horrid enough. The devil was formerly an angel in heaven, but he was inwardly hypocritical, diabolical, and deceitful. He lost his tail, for he will perish entirely in the end, as the Apostle says: 'The Lord shall consume him with the spirit of his mouth.' (2 Thessalonians, 2:8).

The word sīmĭa derives from Greek, meaning snub-nosed. Hence, we call them sīmĭae, for they have a flat nose and a revolting face, with ugly wrinkles expanding and contracting. Although it is characteristic of goats to have a flattened nose, the guenons , the apes of the genus Cercopithecus have tails. This is the only distinction between the first ones mentioned. The Cenophali also are numbered among apes: they are very common in the Ethiopian regions.

saltum. feri morsu. Numquam ita mansueti; ut non sint
magis rabidi. Inter simias habentur et spinges. vil-
lose in armis. ac dociles ad feritatis oblivionem;
Sunt et quos vocant satiros³. facie admodum grata.
gesticulatis motibus. inquieti calitores. toto pe-
ne aspectu a ceteris differunt. In facie barba est. latam
habet caudam. Hos capere non est arduum. set pro-
ferre rarum. Neque enim vivunt in altero quam in ethio-
pico loco. hoc est in suo celo

They leap violently and bite fiercely. They are never so gentle, thus not more rabid. Among apes, there are also sphynxes that have hairy arms and learn easily how to consign their ferocity to oblivion.

There is a species called satyrus: this ape is very pleasing in appearance and gesticulates. The ape of the genus Callithrix is restless and almost completely different in aspect from the others. It has a beard on the face and a broad tail. It is not difficult to catch them nor easy to bring them into the open. They do not live in any place other than in the Ethiopian region. That is in their own territory.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ape, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast148.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

1 The term sīmĭae comes from the Greek word σῑμός (sīmós, “snub-nosed”).

2 The term is Cercŏpĭthēcus. The genus Cercopithecus, derived from the Ancient Greek terms κέρκος (kérkos, “tail”) and πίθηκος (píthēkos, "ape"), was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guenon

3 Sătўrus = species of apes described in Medieval bestiaries.

4 Paul the Apostle.

5 The guenons are Old World monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus.

6 It is unclear to what species of apes the text is referring. It might be referring to the yellow baboon, Papio Cynocephalus, which inhabits the forests and savannas in eastern Africa, from Kenya and Tanzania to Zimbabwe and Botswana. It might also be referring to the Cercopithecus cephus, the moustached monkey.

7 Callithrix is a genus of New World monkeys of the family Callitrichidae, the family containing marmosets and tamarins. The genus contains the Atlantic Forest marmosets. The name Callithrix is derived from the Greek words kallos, meaning beautiful, and thrix, meaning hair. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callithrix

Peridexion tree, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Perindens est arbor in india. fructus autem
huius arboris dulcis est totus dulcis et valde suavis.
Columbe autem delectantur in fructibus huius ar-
boris. habitantque in ea pascentes fructus eius.
Draco autem inimicus est columbis timetque arborem
et umbram eius. ubi columbe morantur. et non potest ap-
propinquare arbori neque umbre eius. Si enim umbra
eius venerit ad occidentem; fugit draco ad orien-
tem. si ad orientem; fugit ad occidentem. Si autem eve-
nerit ut columba inveniatur extra arborem aut um-
bram eius; occidit eam draco. Arborem deum pa-
trem intellige. umbram filium. sicut gabriel
dicit ad mariam. Spiritus sanctus superveniet in te
et virtus altissimi obumbrabit tibi. Fructum; ce-
lestem sapientiam. deum scilicet. Columbam spi-
ritum sanctum. id est spiritualem columbam
intelligibilem de celo descendentem et manentem
super te. ne foris fias ab eternitate. alienus a patre
et spiritu sancto. et draco. id est diabolus te inte-

There is a tree in India called perindens[1]. The fruit of this tree is sweet and most delightful. Of this tree, doves enjoy the fruits whereon they feed; therefore, they dwell there often. However, the dragon, who is the enemy of doves, fears the tree and its shade whereunder doves rest and cannot approach the tree nor its shade. If the shadow shifts to the west, the dragon flees to the east; if it moves to the east, the dragon flees to the west. If a dove happens to be found outside the tree or its shadow, the dragon kills it.

The tree is to be understood as God the Father and the shadow as the Son, as Gabriel says to Mary: 'The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you.'[2] The fruit is heavenly wisdom, which is God himself. The dove symbolises the Holy Spirit, that is, the spiritual dove descending from heaven and remaining upon you, lest you be outside eternity, alienated from the Father and the Holy Spirit. If that were the case, the dragon, which symbolises the Devil, would kill you.

rimat. Nam si habeas spiritum sanctum non potest tibi ap-
propinquare draco. Attende ergo o homo et permane in fide
catholica. ibique habita ibique persevera. Immo quantum
potes cave ne extra domum foris inveniaris. et com-
prehendat te ille draco serpens antiqus et devoret te;
sicut iudam. qui mox ut exiit a domo foras id est a
fratribus apostolis; statim a demone devoratus est; et
periit.

If you have the Holy Spirit with yourself, the dragon cannot approach you. Therefore, take heed, O man, and remain in the Catholic faith. Dwell there and persevere there. Indeed, take as much care as you can not to be found outside your dwelling, lest the ancient serpent, the dragon, seizes and devours you, as he did with Judas, who, as soon as he went out of his dwelling—that is, away from his brothers, the apostles—was immediately devoured by the demon and perished.

Further Reading

Physiologus (1979) (M. J. Curley, Trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.

Van Arsdall, A. and Graham, T. (eds.) (2012) Herbs and healers from the ancient Mediterranean through the medieval West: Essays in honor of John M. Riddle. University of New Mexico.

Hozeski, B.W. (trans.) (2001) Hildegard’s Healing Plants. Beacon Press. First electronic reading edition, 2002.

Siraisi, N.G. (1990) Medieval & Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London.

Demaitre, L. (2013) Medieval Medicine: The Art of Healing, from Head to Toe. Praeger Series on the Middle Ages, Jane Chance (series editor). Praeger.

Plinio Secondo, G. (1986) Storia Naturale IV Medicina e Farmacologia Libro 28-32. Giulio Einaudi Editore, S.p.A., Torino.

Footnotes

[1] The Physiologus quotes this tree as peridexion (Physiologus, 1979, p. XIX): this is a mythological tree found in India: it attracts doves and deters snakes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peridexion_tree

[2] Luke NKJV 1:35: "And the angel answered and said to her, 'The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Highest will overshadow you; therefore, also, that Holy One who is to be born will be called the Son of God.'"

Bee, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

In this fascinating exploration of bees, we learn that these industrious creatures are named after their habit of clinging to branches or because they are born without feet, later acquiring both feet and wings. Skilled in honey production, bees create intricate nests and honeycombs from a variety of flowers, filling them with countless larvae. They live in well-organized communities, complete with an army and a king, engaging in battles and fleeing from smoke. Many believed bees were born from the decaying flesh of oxen, with larvae transforming into bees from the decayed blood of slaughtered calves. While these bees are strictly called bees, hornets are said to come from horses, drones from kites and wasps from donkeys. The Greeks referred to the larger bees found in the outer parts of honeycombs as kastros, believed to be the kings that lead the hive.

Drones, larger than bees but smaller than hornets, feed on the labour of others without contributing, embodying laziness that Virgil describes as being driven from the hive. Bees share a communal life, from labour to offspring, inhabiting the same space and obeying their chosen king, who leads them with authority yet without force, as they willingly follow out of love. The king bee is selected for his size, docility and appearance: even though he has a sting, he never uses it for revenge. Other bees, if they sting in vengeance, face death. No bee dares to venture out for food unless led by the king, who guides them through fragrant fields and gardens. There, the young bees play, exercise, and work, gathering food and building their hive. The hive itself, a marvel of architecture, resembles a fortified camp with cells that support each other like towers.

Bees work diligently without stealing from others, though they must defend against thieves. Their stings, if provoked, inject venom into their honey but they die in the act, driven by vengeance. The bee is celebrated for its wisdom, diligence and virtue. Even Solomon advised observing the bee’s industriousness to learn from it. The bee's labour produces honey, a sweet and healing substance enjoyed by both the rich and poor, kings and commoners alike. Bees are physically small but strong in wisdom and virtue and they protect their king with their lives, abandoning their duty and even their honey if he is lost.

In addition to their earthly roles, bees are also symbolically linked to evil spirits, representing the turmoil and contrition of carnal desires. The Bible mentions that in times of judgment, the Lord will summon flies and bees, symbols of demons that torment the wicked and those lost in ignorance. Even after being killed in water, flies and bees can sometimes revive, symbolising the persistence of worldly cares and demonic influences. In this rich allegory, bees are more than just creatures of nature—they are reflections of spiritual truths and moral lessons.

Apes dicuntur vel quod se pedibus alligent.
dum ramis dependent; vel quia sine
pedibus nascuntur. Nam postea et pedes et pen-
nas accipiunt. Hec sollertes in generandi mel-
lis offitio. assignatas incolunt sedes. Domicilia
in enarrabili arte componunt. et ex variis floribus
favum componunt. Textisque ceris; innumera prole
castra replent. Exercitum et reges habent. prelia mo-
vent. fumum fugiunt. tumultu exasperantur. Has
plerique experti sunt de boum cadaveribus nas-
ci. Nam pro hiis creandis; vitulorum occisorum
carnes verberantur. ut ex putrefacto cruore. ver-
mes creentur. qui postea efficiuntur apes. Proprie

Bees are so named, for they hold on to things with their feet when they hang from branches or they are born without feet. Later, they acquire both feet and wings. These bees, skilled in the production of honey, dwell in places assigned to them. They build their nests with incredible artistry and create honeycombs from various flowers. They fill these combs, woven from wax, with countless larvae. They have an army and a king, wage battles, flee from smoke and noise irritates them. Many believe that they are born from the corpses of oxen. For the creation of bees, the flesh of slaughtered calves is beaten so that worms are created from the decayed blood, which later turns into bees.

tamen apes vocantur orte de bobus. sicut scrabo-
nes de equis. fuci de milvis. Vespe de asinis. Cas-
tros greci appellant; qui in extremis favorum
partibus maiores creantur. quos aliqui reges
putant dici; quod castra ducant. Fucus autem
est; api similis. sed ape maior. et scrabone minor.
et depascit alienos labores quos ipse non labora-
vit. De quo virgilius. Ingavum fucum pecus; a
presepibus arcent. Sole apes communem omnibus sobo-
lem habent. Unam incolunt mansionem;
Unius patrie clauduntur limine. Communis la-
bor. communis cibus. communis volatus. communis;
fructus. communis generatio. communis virgini-
tatis integritatis(changed to integritas). Communis partus. Non enim
inter se concubitu miscentur. et subito maxi-
mum filiorum examen emittunt. Foliis atque herbis
ore suo prolem legentes. Ipse sibi regem ordinant.
Ipse populos creant. Et licet sint sub rege; tamen sunt
libere. quia regem quem ordinaverunt; diligunt

et ideo ei sponte obediunt. et secuntur. Rex ab illis
elegitur que prestet; corporis magnitudine. et man-
suetudine. et specie. Nam et si habet aculeum; tamen
eo non utitur ad vindicandum. Apes quoque alie /
si aculeo suo utantur ad vindicandum. pro commissi-
pretio; sententia mortis se affligunt. Nulle apes
ad pastum exire audent; nisi precesserit earum
rex. et principatum volatus teneat. Processus est; per
rura redolentia. per hortos floribus redolentes. per
amena riparum. Illic ludus alacris iuventutis. Il-
lic campestre exercitium. Illic; curarum remissio.
Opus ipsum; suave. de floribus et herbis dulcibus fun-
damina prima castrorum ponuntur. Quid enim aliud
est favus nisi castrorum speties. in quibus minute.
et rotunde cellule quasi turres connexione sui invi-
cem fulciuntur. Cernas omnes certare de munere.
alias invigilare querendo victum. alias sollicitam
castris exhibere custodiam. alias futuros explora-
re imbres. et contemplari concursus nubium. ali-
as de floribus ceras fingere. alias rorem infusum

floribus ore colligere. Nullam tamen alienis insi-
diari laboribus et raptu victum querere. Atque
utinam raptorum insidias non timerent. Habent
tamen spicula sua. et inter mella fundunt vene-
num; si fuerint lacessite. animasque ponunt in
vulnere. et spiculum ardore vindicte. Apis
dicitur sapiens et discretus et diligens et
proindus. Unde sapientia salomonis dicit.
Vade ad apem et vide quam operaria est. et eius imita-
re operationem. Operatio enim apis appetibilis est. om-
nibus. tam pauperibus quam divitibus. et cara et
indiscreta sui gracia; regibus pariter ac me-
diocribus equali suavitate dulcessit. et volup-
tati et saluti consulit. fauces obdulcat. et cu-
rat vulnera. Internis quoque sanat viscera. Itaque
cum sit robore infirma apes; valida est vigo-
re sapiencie et amore virtutis. Denique regem
suum apes summa protectione defendunt. et peri-
re pro eo pulcrum putant. Amisso rege. fidem

collect the dew with their mouths. None, however, lay traps for others' labour or steals the food of others. If only they did not have to fear the traps of thieves! Nevertheless, they have their stings, and if provoked, they pour venom into their honey but lose their lives in the act, driven by vengeance. The bee is said to be wise, discerning and diligent; therefore, the wise Solomon says: "Go to the bee and see how industrious it is, and imitate its work." The bee's labour is desirable to all, both poor and rich; its honey is equally sweet to kings and commoners and provides both pleasure and health, sweetening the throat and healing wounds. It also heals the internal organs. Although bees are physically weak, their wisdom and love for virtue are strong. Finally, bees protect their king with utmost care and consider it noble to die for him.

servandi muneris; derelinqunt. atque ipse sua mella
diripiunt. Quia is qui principatum habuit mune-
ris; interemptus est. Itaque cum aves alie vix in anno
edant singulos fetus; apes geminos vel triplices
creant. et multiplici ceteris fecunditate preponde-
rant. Apes iterum dicuntur maligni spiritus vel tu-
multus et compunctiones carnalium desideriorum. Unde
ysaias. In die illa sibilabit d9 musce que est.
in extremo fluminum egypti. et api que est in
terra affur. et venient et requiescent omnes in tor-
rentibus vallium et cavernis petrarum. et in omnibus
frutectis. et in universis foraminibus. Malignienin
spiritus dulcedinem huius vite sequendam suggeren-
tes; animam aculeo peccati et pene eterne transfi-
gunt. Hee musce et apes manent in terra egypti; et
in fluminibus eius et in terra assiriorum; quia demones
luxuriosis et vitiosis et tenebris ignorantie de-
ditis; dominantur. Musce sicut et apes. necate in aqua;
aliquotiens post unius hore spatium; reviviscunt.
Nomine musce aliquando dicuntur demones. vel cure secularum;

If the king is lost, they abandon their duty and even plunder their own honey, for the one who held the position of leadership has been killed. Whilst other birds barely produce a single brood in one year, bees produce two or three, surpassing others in abundant fertility. Bees are also called evil spirits, turmoil and contrition of carnal desires. Hence, Isaiah says: "In that day the Lord will whistle for the fly that is in the farthest part of the rivers of Egypt and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria. They will all come and rest in the desolate valleys and in the clefts of the rocks, and in all the thorns and in all the pastures." Evil spirits pierce the soul with the sting of sin and eternal punishment by offering the sweetness of this life. Flies and bees dwell in the land of Egypt and in its rivers and in the land of the Assyrians, for demons rule over the lustful, the wicked and those devoted to the darkness of ignorance. Flies, like bees, if killed in water, sometimes revive after an hour. The word musca for fly sometimes refers to demons or to worldly cares.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Bee, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast260.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] There is no evidence that the Greeks referred to larger bees as kastros. The word κάστρον/kástron means castle/fortress in English. The reference to the larger bees as kastros is probably due to the larger bees leading the hive, figuratively the castle/fortress.

[2] Georgics (Book IV, line 270): "They drive the lazy drone from the hives". Virgil uses the image of bees driving away the idle or lazy drone to illustrate the industrious nature of bees and to convey a moral lesson about hard work and productivity.

[3] Proverbs NKJV 6:6: "Go to the ant, you sluggard! Consider her ways and be wise,"

[4] Isaiah NKJV 7:18-19: "And it shall come to pass in that day That the Lord will whistle for the fly that is in the farthest part of the rivers of Egypt, And for the bee that is in the land of Assyria. They will come, and all of them will rest In the desolate valleys and in the clefts of the rocks, And on all thorns and in all pastures."

Read More

Asp, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The asp, a deadly snake, is known for its venomous bite, with several species including the dipsa, hypnale, haemorrhois and prester. The dipsa, also called sĭtŭla in Latin, causes its victims to die of thirst, often without realising they have been bitten due to the snake's tiny size. The hypnale kills by lulling its victims into a fatal sleep—famously used by Cleopatra in her suicide. The haemorrhois causes blood to flow uncontrollably from the body, whereas the prester, known for its steaming, wide-open mouth, causes extreme swelling and decay after a bite.

In ancient lore, the asp is said to resist a magician's charms by blocking its ears to avoid being drawn out of its hole. This behaviour led to the asp being symbolically associated with malicious or heretical figures. The Bible references the asp’s deadly venom in Deuteronomy and Pliny notes that vinegar can counteract the snake’s poison. This depiction of the asp and its various species paints a vivid picture of the dangers these serpents posed in ancient times, both physically and symbolically.

Aspis morsu venenato interimit. Huius sunt
diversa species. Videlicet dipsa. Ipnalis. emorois.
prester. Dipsa; latine dicitur situla. quia quem mo-
morderit; siti perit. et est tante exiguitatis; ut
cum calcatur non videtur. Cuius venenum ante extin-
guit; quam senciatur. ut nec tristiciam inducat morituro3.
De quo poeta. Signiferum iuvenem tirrem sanguinis
aulum; tota capud retro dipsa calcata momordit.

The asp kills with its venomous bite. There are various species of it, namely: dipsa, hypnălē, haemorrhŏis[1] and prēster[2]. The dipsa is called situla[3] in Latin, for whoever is bitten dies of thirst. It is so small that it cannot be seen, even when stepped on. Its venom kills the victims before they even feel it, so it brings no agony to them. The poet[4] says thereof: 'With its head twisted back, the dipsa, having been stepped on, bit the young standard-bearer Aulus of Tyrrhenian blood[5]; there was barely any pain or sensation of fangs.”

Vix/Vis dolor aut sensus dentis fuit. Ipnalis genus
apsidis sompno necat. Hanc sibi cleopatra appo-
suit. et morte quasi sompno soluta est. Emorois;
sanguinem totum humanum per dissolutas venas desu-
dare facit. Prester; semper ore patenti et vaporan-
ti; currit. Unde poeta. Oraque distendens avidus
fumantia prester. Hic quem percusserit disten-
ditur. enormique corpulentia necatur. Extube-
ratum enim putredo sequitur. Fertur autem.
omnis aspis cum ceperit pati incantatorem. ut eam
quibusdam incantationibus a cavernis suis extra-
hant; illa cum exire noluerit; unam aurem
in terram premit. alteram obturat cauda;
et operit. atque ita voces illas magicas non audi-
ens; non exit ad incantantem. Nomine igitur aspidis
dicuntur maliciosi iudei. sive venenosi he-
retici. Unde in deuteronomio. Fel draconum
vinum eorum. et venenum aspidum insanabile;
Plinius dicit venenum aspidis aceto repelli.

There was hardly any pain or sensation in the tooth. Sleep kills the type of apse. Cleopatra put this to him, and in death she was dissolved as in a dream. hemorrhoids; it causes the whole human blood to flow out through the dilapidated veins. Priest; always open-mouthed and steaming; running Hence the poet. And stretching out his mouth, the avid smoking priest. Here he whom he strikes is distended, and his enormous corpulence is killed. For exhumation is followed by decay. Now it is said that every wasp, when it has caught a charmer, has to draw it out of its caves by certain incantations; when she refused to go out; he presses one ear to the ground, the tail stops the other; and he covers, and thus not hearing those magical voices; does not go out to enchantment. Therefore, by the name of asps, the malicious Jews are called, or poisonous heretics. Hence in Deuteronomy. Their wine is the gall of dragons, and the poison of the asp is incurable. Pliny says that the poison of the asp is repelled by vinegar.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Asp, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast268.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Footnotes

[1] Haemorrhŏis hippocrepis is actually a genus containing four species of aglyphous (non-venomous) ophidian colubrid snakes, commonly referred to as whip-snakes and Asian racers, respectively. Snakes of this genus are found in an array of habitats, though they predominantly inhabit arid regions, with the most common three species of the four being found on the Iberian Peninsula and in Morocco and Northern Africa.

[2] According to Lucan, the prēster, bellows-swelling, swollen veins or inflater, is a deadly species of asp found in the deserts of Libya.

[3] Sĭtŭla means a bucket for drawing water in Latin.

[4] Lucan was a Roman poet, born in Corduba, Hispania Baetica (present-day Córdoba, Spain). He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial Latin period, known in particular for his epic Pharsalia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucan

[5] Lucan, Civil War 9.737: “With its head twisted back the dipsas, when it was stepped on, bit the young standard-bearer Aulus, of Tyrrhenian blood; there was barely any pain or sensation of fangs.”

[6] The hypnalis is a legendary creature described in medieval bestiaries. It is described as a type of asp that kills its victim in their sleep. Cleopatra placed it on herself (at her breasts) and thus was freed by death as if by sleep. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asp_(snake)

In reality, there exists a type of viper of the genus hypnale called hump-nosed viper, venomous viper endemic to Sri Lank and India. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnale

[7] Lucan, Civil War 9.722: “The greedy prester, swelling out its steaming mouth.”

[8] Deuteronomy KJV 32:33: "Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps."

Serpent, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The serpent embodies three key symbolic natures, each offering spiritual lessons.

First Nature: as a serpent ages, its sight dims. To renew itself, it fasts and then squeezes through a narrow rock crevice to shed its old skin. This process symbolises the need for humans to shed their old ways through spiritual struggles and seek Christ, the spiritual rock and the narrow gate.

Second Nature: when the serpent drinks from a river, it first purges its poison into a pit. Similarly, when approaching divine teachings or seeking spiritual nourishment, humans must rid themselves of earthly and evil desires, cleansing their inner selves before partaking in holy wisdom.

Third Nature: a serpent fears a naked man but attacks a clothed one, reflecting the story of Adam: when he was spiritually naked in paradise, the serpent (Devil) could not harm him. Clothed in mortality after the fall, Adam became vulnerable to attack. This teaches that if we cling to our mortal weaknesses, we are susceptible to evil. However, if we shed our garments of sin and worldly powers, the serpent cannot prevail against us.

Additionally, serpents have various traits and behaviours such as using fennel to improve their vision and moving by their ribs and scales, which act as legs. They leave a moist trail and have a unique, rapidly flicking tongue. Living long lives, serpents periodically rejuvenate by shedding their old skin. Fascinatingly, lore suggests that serpents may be born from the marrow of dead men’s spines, linking them symbolically to death and rebirth. This intricate imagery serves as a reminder of the cycle of life, renewal, and the importance of spiritual vigilance.

The serpent was commonly associated with the Devil, sin and temptation, drawing from the Biblical story of the Garden of Eden where the serpent tempted Eve to eat the forbidden fruit. This act led to the fall of man, making the serpent a primary symbol of deception, cunning and moral corruption. It was often depicted as embodiments of various sins and vices, such as envy, lust and deceit. Its slithering movement, venom and cunning nature were used as metaphors for these moral failings.

The serpent was also seen as a harbinger of death and destruction, echoing ancient fears of venomous snakes and their deadly bites. In this view, the serpent was a reminder of humanity's vulnerability and the ever-present threat of spiritual death. Despite these negative associations, serpents could also symbolise wisdom and the potential for renewal and transformation. This duality stemmed from their ability to shed their skin, which was seen as a metaphor for spiritual rebirth and repentance.

In Christian symbolism, the image of Christ trampling the serpent or crushing its head became a powerful motif representing Christ's victory over sin, death and the Devil. This imagery derives from the prophecy in Genesis 3:15[1], where it is foretold that the seed of the woman (interpreted as Christ) would crush the serpent's head. The serpent also had associations with healing, most notably seen in the story of Moses lifting a bronze serpent on a pole to heal the Israelites from snake bites (Numbers 21:8-9)[2]. This story was interpreted allegorically in Christianity as a prefiguration of Christ's crucifixion, which brought spiritual healing to humanity.

Serpens tres habet naturas. Prima eius na-
tura hec est. cum senuerit caligant oculi
eius. Et cum voluerit novus fieri; abstinet se
et ieiunat multis diebus. donec pellis eius relaxetur.
et querit angustam rimam in petra. et intrat

The serpent has three natures. Its first nature is this: when it grows old, its sight grows dim. When it wants to regenerate, it abstains from food and fasts for many days until its skin loosens. It then seeks a narrow crack in a rock and enters it.

in eam. et contribulat se. et deponit veterem pel-
lem. Et nos per multam tribulationem deponamus
veterem indumentum. et queramus spiritualem petram christum.
et angustam fissuram. id est angustam portam.
Secunda eius natura est; cum venerit ad flumen bibere
aquam. non portat secum venenum sinum. sed in fovea
dimittit illud. Et nos cum in collectam venimus;
aquam vivam atque sempiternam haurientes; audire
divinum sermonem in ecclesia; debemus abicere a nobis
venenum. id est. terrenas et malas concupiscentias;
Tertia natura eius est; si viderit hominem nudum;
timet eum. si viderit vestitum; exilit in eum. Sic
et nos spiritualiter intelligamus. quia primus homo adam
quamdiu fuit nudus in paradiso; non prevaluit serpens exi-
lire in eum. Sed postquam tunica est. indutus. idest mortali-
tate corporis; tunc exilivit in eum serpens; Si habes ergo
in te mortalem vestem id est veterem hominem. et invete-
ratus fueris dierum malorum; exilit in te serpens. Si autem
expolies te indumento principum et potestatum huius seculi

It coils up inside and sheds its old skin. Similarly, we should shed our old garments through great tribulation and seek the spiritual rock, Christ, and the narrow fissure, that is, the narrow gate. Its second nature is this: when it comes to a river to drink water, it does not bring along its poison. Instead, it discharges it into a pit. Similarly, when we come to a gathering to drink the living, eternal water and to hear the divine teachings in the church, we should rid ourselves of our poison, that is, earthly and evil desires. Its third nature is this: if the serpent sees a naked man, it fears him but if it sees a clothed one, it attacks him. Thus, we should understand spiritually that when the first man, Adam, was naked in paradise, the serpent could not prevail against him. When Adam was clothed, that is, once he had taken on the mortality of the body, then the serpent attacked him. Therefore, if you are clad in the mortal garment within yourself, that is, your former self, and you have grown old in evil days, the serpent will attack you. If you are unclad in the garments of princes and rid yourself of the power of the darkness of this world,

tenebrarum; tunc non poterit exilire in te ser-
pens id est diabolus. Serpens quoque pastu feniculi cecita-
tem expellit receptam. Itaque ubi oculos sibi ob-
duci senserit; nota remedia petit nec fraudatur
effectu. Testudo visceribus pasta serpentis. cum
venenum adverterit sibi serpere; organo[3] medici-
nam sue salutis exercet. Ieiuni hominis sputum
serpens si gustaverit; moritur. Dicit plinius quod
si serpentis capud etiam cum duobus digitis eva-
serit; nichilominus vivit. Unde et totum corpus obi-
cit pro capite ferientibus. Serpentibus universis he-
bes est visus; et raro ante se aspiciunt. Nec frus-
tra. cum oculos non infronte; set in temporibus
habeant. adeo ut cicius audiant quam aspiciant.
Nullum animal cum tanta celeritate linguam
movet; ut serpens. adeo ut triplicem linguam habere
videatur; cum una sit. Serpentium humida sunt
corpora. adeo ut quaque eant; viam humore

then the serpent, that is, the Devil, will not be able to attack you. The serpent is also able to expel the blindness caused by eating fennel. When it feels its sight blurring, it seeks its own remedies and knows that they will be effective. A tortoise, when it has swallowed the serpent’s entrails and realised that the venom is spreading through its body, cures itself with oregano. If the serpent tastes the spittle of a fasting man, it dies. Pliny says that if the head of a serpent comes off the neck even by two fingers , it keeps living. Hence, it exposes its whole body to danger just to protect its head. The serpent has a very weak sense of sight: seldom can it see what is ahead. This is not without reason: since the eyes are not on the forehead but rather on the temples of the head, the serpent’s hearing is better than its sight. No animal flicks its tongue as swiftly as a serpent, so much so that it seems to have a triple tongue, although it actually has only one.

The serpent has a humid body, so that wherever it goes, it marks its path with moisture.

designent. Vestigia serpentium sunt talia ut
compedibus carere videantur. Costarum et squamarum
nisibus repunt. quas a summo gutture usque ad
imum alvum parili modo dispositas habent. Squa-
mis enim quasi unguibus costis quasi cruribus inni-
tuntur. Serpentes diu vivere dicuntur. adeo
ut deposita veteri tunica; senectutem deponere
atque in iuventutem redire perhibeantur. Tunice
serpentium ex uvie vocantur. eoquod hiis quando
senescunt sese exuunt. Dicuntur autem exuvie et
induvie; quia exuuntur et induuntur. Pitagoras
dicit de medulla hominis mortui que in spina
est; serpentem creari. Quod etiam ovidius in methaph-
libris commemorat dicens. Sunt qui cum clauso putre-
facta spina sepulcro mutari credant humanas
angue medullas. Et bene ut sicut per serpentem
mors hominis. ita per hominis mortem serpens
nascatur.

The prints left by the serpent are such that they seem to lack feet. They move by means of their ribs and scales, which are equally arranged from the top of their throat to the bottom of their belly. Scales serve as claws and ribs as legs. The serpent is said to live for a long time, so much so that after shedding its old skin, it lays aside its old age and rejuvenates. The skin of the serpent is called exŭvĭae[5], for they shed it, exŭĕre, when they grow old. With regard to clothing, the word indŭĕre means to put on clothes whereas exŭĕre means to take off clothes. Pythagoras says that a serpent is created from the marrow of a dead man, which is found in the spine. Ovid also mentions it in his Metamorphoses, saying that some believe that when a putrefied spine has rotted in a tomb, human marrow turns into a serpent. Thus, just as a serpent causes death, so too does the death of a man create a serpent.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Snake, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast264.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Genesis NKJV 3:15: "And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her Seed; He shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise His heel."

[2] Numbers NKJV 21:8-9: "Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Make a fiery serpent and set it on a pole; and it shall be that everyone who is bitten, when he looks at it, shall live’. So Moses made a bronze serpent and put it on a pole; and so it was, if a serpent had bitten anyone, when he looked at the bronze serpent, he lived."

[3] Ŏrīgănum means oregano

[4] The word dĭgĭtus, which means finger in English, was also a unit of length that the Ancient Romans used. One dĭgĭtus was the sixteenth part of one foot and amounted to about 18mm.

[5] Exŭvĭae meant garments, clothes, spoils of war but also skin (of animals) in Latin

Stellion, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The stellĭo, a stellion or star lizard, named after its unique coloration, is a creature adorned with star-like spots that glimmer on its back. This creature carries a celestial pattern, as noted by Ovid: "Its name fits its colour; it is starred on the body with spots of various colours" (Metamprphoses, 5, 461). This lizard is so fiercely opposed to scorpions that it becomes paralysed and numb with fear at the mere sight of it.

The text delves into the nature of snakes, emphasising their natural coldness and behaviour. Snakes, it explains, do not strike unless warmed, making their cold venom more powerful during the day than at night. In the chill of winter, they become sluggish and coil up, only to become active again in the warmth of summer. The venom of a snake does not harm until it mingles with warm blood flowing through the veins, as echoed in the words of the Roman poet Lucan: "The poison of snakes is only deadly when mixed with the blood" (Pharsalia, 9, 614).

Snakes are also known for their exceptional sharpness of senses, surpassing all other creatures. Intriguingly, it is believed that snakes cannot harm a human unless their venom enters the bloodstream and they are said to shy away from touching a naked human. The serpent’s cunning nature is rooted in the biblical narrative from Genesis, where it is described as the most cunning of all the beasts of the earth, symbolising its sly and perceptive nature.

Stellio a colore inditum nomen habet. Est
enim in tergore pictus. lucentibus guttis in
modum stellarum. de quo ovidius. Aptumque co-
lori; nomen habet variis stellatus corpore
guttis. Hic autem scorpionibus adeo contrarius
dicitur. ut viso eo pavorem habeant et tor-
porem . Omnes serpentes naturaliter frigi-
de sunt. Non percutiunt; nisi quando calescunt.
Unde et venena eorum que naturaliter frigi-
da sunt; plus die quam nocte nocent. In hieme
in nodos torpent. in estate solvuntur. Nec vene-
num quod frigidum est. prius nocet; quam ad sangui-
nem qui calidus est et fugit venenum per venas

Stellĭo[1] is named after its coloration. It is marked on its back with shining spots resembling stars. As Ovid says: 'Its name fits its colour; it is starred on the body with spots of various colours'.[2] It is said to be so hostile to scorpions that, upon seeing them, they are paralysed with fear and become numb. All snakes are cold by nature. They do not strike unless their body is warm. Therefore, their venom, which is naturally cold, is more harmful by day than by night. In winter, they become sluggish and coil up but in summer, they are active. The venom, being cold, does not cause harm until it reaches the blood, which is warm and flows through the veins.

discurrens perveniat. Omne venenum naturali-
tur est. frigidum. Omnia animantia serpens vi-
vacitate quadam sensus superat. Ferunt autem
quod non potest hominem nocere; nisi venenum
tetigerit sanguinem euis. Unde lucanus. Noxia
serpentum est admixto sanguine pestis. Dicunt
quod serpens hominem nudum non audet atti-
gere. De vivacitate sensus eius legitur in genesi.
quod serpens erat sapientior omnibus pecoribus
terre.

All venom is naturally cold. Snakes surpass all animals in the sharpness of their senses. It is said that a snake cannot harm a human unless its venom touches a person’s blood. Lucan says thereof: 'The poison of snakes is only deadly when mixed with the blood'. It is believed that a snake does not dare to touch a naked human. About the sharpness of its senses, it is written in Genesis that the serpent was more cunning than all the beasts of the earth.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Stellio, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast906.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] This kind of lizard is most probably the Laudakia Stellio, a species of agamid lizard also known as the starred agama or the roughtail rock agama. Other names are stallion, star lizard, starred agama. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laudakia_stellio

[2] Ovid, Metamprphoses, 5, 461

[3] Lucan, Pharsalia, 9, 614

[4] Genesis NKJV 3:1: "Now the serpent was more cunning than any beast of the field which the Lord God had made."

Dragon, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The dragon is the mightiest of all creatures on earth, surpassing even the largest serpents. When it comes out of its lair, it soars into the sky, causing the heavens to tremble. It boasts a distinctive crest, a small mouth and tight tubes through which it breathes and produces sounds. Rather than its teeth, the dragon’s true power lies in its tail, which it uses to whip and inflict harm more effectively than biting.

Remarkably, the dragon is immune to poisons but it can still be deadly if it strikes with its tail. Its tail is so formidable that even an elephant cannot escape its wrath. The dragon lurks along elephant trails, using its tail to bind their legs and suffocate them. This fearsome creature is believed to originate from the scorching lands of Ethiopia and India.

Allegorically, the dragon represents the devil—a fierce and deceptive entity. Just as the dragon is dragged out into the sky and causes it to shine, the devil, emerging from the depths, masquerades as an angel of light to deceive the unwary with false promises of glory and joy. The dragon’s crest symbolises its reign over pride and its power lies not in its teeth but in its tail, which ensnares and deceives those it lures. It hides near the paths to heaven, binding souls with the knots of sin and suffocating them. Those ensnared by such sins face certain damnation.

Draco maior est. cunctorum serpentium sive
omnium animantium super terram. Qui sepe
a speluncis extractus; fertur in aerem. Concitatur
que propter eum aer. Est autem cristatus. ore parvo.
et artis fistulis. per quas trahit spiritum. et linquam;
exerit. Vim autem non in dentibus. sed in caudam;
habet. et verbere potius quam ictu nocet. Innoxius

The dragon is the largest of all snakes or of all creatures on earth. When it is often dragged out of caves, it flies into the sky, which is shaken because of it. It has a crest, a small mouth and tight tubes wherethrough it draws breath and utters a sound. Its power is not in its teeth but in its tail: it inflicts harm more by whipping with its tail than by biting with its teeth.

tamen est a venenis; Sed cauda ligaverit; occi-
dit. A quo nec elephans tutus est. sui corporis magnitu-
dine. Nam circa semitas delitescens per quas elephan-
tes soliti gradiuntur; crura eorum nodis illigat(changed from alligat). ac
suffocatos perimit. Gignitur autem in ethiopia et in india
ubi ipso incendio iugis est estus. Huic draconi dia-
bolus assimilatur. qui est inmanissimus serpens. Se-
pe in aerem concitatur. et lucet propter eum aer; quia
diabolus ab imis se erigens; transfigurat se in ange-
lum lucis. et decipit stultos sepe false glorie leticieque
humane. Cristatus dicitur; quia ipse est. rex superbie.
Vim non in dentibus sed in cauda habet; quia suis vi-
ribus perditis; mendatio decipit quos ad se trahit. Circa
semitas per quas elephantes gradiuntur delitescit; quia
iter eorum ad celum nodis peccatorum illigat; ac suf-
focatos interimit. Quia si quis criminum vinculo
irretitus moritur; sine dubio in inferno dampnatur;

However, the dragon is immune to poisons but it can kill you if it attacks you with its tail. Owing to the size of the tail, even an elephant cannot defend itself therefrom. Hiding near the paths elephants usually walk along, the dragon binds their legs with knots and suffocates them. This creature is born in Ethiopia and India, where there is heat from the burning mountains. The dragon symbolises the devil, who is an extremely fierce serpent. It is often dragged out into the sky and the sky shines because of it, for the devil, rising from the depths, turns himself into an angel of light and deceives the foolish with false glory and human joy. It is crested, cristātus, for it is the king of pride. It has power not in its teeth but in its tail, for when it loses its strength, it deceives those whom it attracts with falsehood. It hides near the paths where elephants walk, for it binds their way to heaven with the knots of sins and suffocates them. If anyone bound by the chains of crimes dies, they are undoubtedly condemned to hell.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Dragon, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast262.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The reference to the dragon having a small mouth might not be literal but rather an indication of its less significant role in inflicting harm through biting. Instead, the dragon's primary means of attack is its tail, which is described as the source of its dangerous power. The small mouth could symbolise that the dragon’s true threat comes not from its bite but from other features, such as its tail or the symbolic elements associated with it.

Basilisk, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The basilisk is a legendary reptile originating from the crossbreeding of a cockerel ad snake: it is known as βασιλίσκος (vasilískos) in Greek and rēgŭlus in Latin. It is also regarded as the king of serpents—so deadly that its mere presence causes other creatures to flee. This snake kills with its noxious smell and can even kill a person just by looking at them. No bird flying near the basilisk escapes its deadly gaze; even those at a distance are burned and devoured. However, the basilisk has a natural enemy: the weasel. Humans release weasels into the basilisk's hiding places, forcing it to flee, only to be relentlessly pursued and killed. This mythical creature, about half a foot long with distinctive white streaks, symbolises the Devil, the king of all demons, embodying the idea that every evil has its remedy. This symbolism is echoed in the verse, “You will trample on the asp and the basilisk.”

Basiliscus grece; latine interpretatur regulus. eo quod
sit rex serpentium; adeo ut eum videntes fugiant.
Quia olfactu suo; eas necat. Et insimul si hominem
aspiciat; interimit. Siquidem ab eius aspectu nul-
la avis volans illesa transit. Sed quamvis procul sit; ore com-
busta devoratur. A mustelis tamen vincitur. quas illis
homines inferunt cavernis; in quibus delitescunt.
Itaque ea visa fugit. quem illa persequens; occidit. Nichil
enim ille parens rerum sine remedio constituit. Est
autem longitudine semipedalis. albis maculis linea-
tus. Nomine basilisci diabolus significatur. qui est rex omnium
demonum. Unde illud. Super aspidem et basiliscum. et cetera.

the basilisk[1] is called βασιλίσκος/vasilískos in Greek; in Latin, it is called rēgŭlus[2], for it is the king of snakes, so much so that when people see it, they flee. This snake kills people with its smell. If it looks at people, it kills them. Indeed, no bird flying past the basilisk escapes unscathed from its sight. Even if the bird is far away, it burns and is devoured by the basilisk’s mouth. However, the basilisk is defeated by weasels, which humans bring into the caves where the basilisk hides. Thus, when it sees the weasel, it flees but the weasel pursues and kills it. The creator of all things established nothing without a remedy. It is about half-foot in length and streaked with white spots. The basilisk is a symbol of the Devil, who is the king of all demons. Hence, the verse “You will trample on the asp and the basilisk”.[3]

Reguli autem sicut scorpiones arentia queque sec-
tantur. Et postquam ad aquas venerint; lim-
phaticos faciunt. Sibilus idem est qui et regulus.
Sibilo enim occidit; antequam mordeat vel exurat;

However, basilisks, like scorpions, seek out dry places. When they go near the water, they become frenzied. The basilisk is a hissing creature, for it kills you with its hiss before biting or burning you.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Basilisk, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast265.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Endnotes

[1] The word basilisk comes from the Greek word βασιλεύς/basileús meaning king.

[2] The word rēgŭlus has various meanings in Latin: it usually denotes a monarch, a king of a small state, a young prince, a queen bee, a wren and in this text, the basilisk.

[3] In the Latin Vulgatae, Psalm 91:13: "Super aspidem et basiliscum ambulabis; et conculcabis leonem et draconem."

Scorpion, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The scorpion is rather curiously recorded as a type of land worm. They will sting the palm of the hand and are said to signify the heretic.

Transcription

Translation

Scorpio est vermis terrenus qui potius ver-
mibus ascribi deberet quam serpentibus. Sed quia
est animal armatum aculeo. et cauda figit. et
arcuato vulnere venena diffundit; inter ser-
pentes nominatur. Proprium autem scorpionis est. quod
manus palmam non feriat. Nomine igitur scorpio-
nis aliquando dicitur flagellum. aliquando hereticus. aliquando qui
inchoatas virtutes ante consummationem viciat. ali-
quando desperatio qui in fine nocet. Quando pro flagellis accipi-
untur; fiunt de spinis vel pomariis quasi virge nodose.
Vel flagellum saracenorum cum duabus virgis vel tribus. q .in sum-
mitate habent plubeas grandines. quibus martires flagellaban-
tur;

Scorpio is an earthly worm, which should rather be ascribed to worms than to serpents. But because it is an animal armed with a sting, and its tail stabs, and spreads poison with an arched wound; He is named among the serpents. But it is peculiar to the scorpion that the hand does not strike the palm. Therefore, by the name of the scorpion, sometimes it is called a scourge, sometimes a heretic, sometimes one who defeats the beginning virtues before their consummation, sometimes desperation which hurts in the end. When they are taken for whips; they are made of thorns or orchards like a gnarled vine. Or the scourge of the Saracens, with two or three rods, at the top of which the martyrs were scourged.

Viper, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The viper, notorious for its violent birthing process, is named after its gruesome reproductive methods. When the viper's belly groans with labour pains, its young burst out prematurely, tearing through the mother’s sides and causing her death. Lucan famously described how “the knots of vipers break the body when mating,” highlighting the creature's brutal nature. During mating, the male viper inserts his head into the female's mouth to deposit his seed. In a frenzy of lust, the female bites off the male's head, leading to their mutual demise—him during the act, and her in childbirth. Saint Ambrose condemned the viper as the most vile and cunning of beasts. The viper’s courtship is equally sinister: when on heat, it seeks out the moray eel at the seashore with its hiss. Despite the viper’s venom, the moray eel does not shy away. Yet, sensing its approach, the viper expels its venom as if to share timidly the union it desires. Once mating is complete, it retrieves the venom it had expelled. With regard to their behaviour, it seems that female vipers and moray eels are even more malevolent today; a woman, like the viper, does not seek her husband in his absence but unleashes her bitterness upon him upon his return. Thus, the viper symbolises demons or individuals of a poisonous and perverse nature.

In medieval Christian thought, the viper's deceptive nature was also seen as a metaphor for hypocrisy. Just as the viper could hide its true intentions until it struck, individuals who were outwardly pious but inwardly corrupt were likened to vipers.

Some medieval bestiaries used the viper to symbolise those who opposed or sought to undermine Christian teachings and values. Its venomous nature and its hostile actions were used to represent the contempt and hostility of those who reject or attack the faith.

Vipera dicta quod vi pariat. Nam et cum venter eius
ad partum ingemuerit; catuli non expectantes
maturam nature solutionem corrosis eius lateribus
in erumpunt cum matris interitu. Unde lucanus.
Viperei coeunt abrupto corpore nodi. Fertur autem
quod masculus ore inserto vipere; semen expuat.
Illa autem ex voluptate in rabiem versa; capud ma-
ris ore recepto; precidit. Ita fit ut parens uterque pe-
reat. masculus cum coit; femina cum parit. De
vipera dicit sanctus ambrosius quia nequissimum
genus bestie est. et super omnia que serpentini sunt ge-
neris; est astutior. Dicunt quidam quod cum cupi-
ditate habet. progreditur ad litus maris.
et sibilo evocat murenam maritimam. Murena cog-
noscens vipere; adest. et cum vipera venenata; con-
iunctionem non abhorret. Sed cum murenam adven-
tare cognoscit; venenum evomit. ut marito ve-
nienti verecundata nuptialem gratiam deferat. Post
completum autem comunctionis offitum venenum
quod evomerat; assumit. Multo peiores

The viper is named so, for it gives birth violently[1]. When its belly groans with labour pains, the snakelets do not wait for the natural time of birth but burst out, tearing through the mother’s sides, resulting in her death. As Lucan says, “The knots of vipers break the body when mating.”[2] It is also said that the male viper inserts its head into the female’s mouth to deposit its seed. In the pleasure of the act, the female maddens out of lust and bites off the male’s head. Thus, both of them perish: the male during mating, the female when giving birth. Saint Ambrose says of the viper that it is the vilest kind of beast and, among all snakes, the most cunning. Some say that when the viper is on heat, it slithers to the seashore and calls the moray eel with its hiss. Recognising the viper, the moray eel comes close and despite the viper’s venom, it does not demur thereat. However, when the viper senses the moray approaching, it expels its venom, sharing timidly with its mate the union it craves. After their mating is complete, the viper takes back the venom it had expelled.

vipera aut murena video esse hodie coniuges;
Mulier enim virum suum absentem non querit.
sed venena verborum pauorum in eum ef-
fundit; cum venit. Nomine igitur vipere signifi-
cantur demones. sive venenati et perversi ho-
mines.

I notice that the female vipers and moray eels are far worse nowadays: a woman does not seek her husband when he is absent but utters venomous words against him instead, when he arrives. Therefore, the viper represents demons or poisonous and perverse people.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Viper, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast267.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Vi from vis means with force/violence and părĭo means to give birth.

[2] Lucan, Pharsalia Book 9 Line 563: "Viperei coeunt abrupto corpore nodi." That translates as “The knots of vipers break the body when mating”.

Saura, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The saura lizard, an emblematic creature in ancient myths and medieval bestiaries, is renowned for its unique journey of renewal and enlightenment. According to legend, when the saura lizard grows old, its eyes become blind. In response to this blindness, the lizard seeks refuge in a crack or hole in a wall, positioning itself to face the east. As the sun rises, it gazes directly at the sun's first light, a mystical act believed to restore its sight. This act of regaining vision through the sun's rays is more than just a tale of natural renewal; it serves as a powerful allegory for spiritual awakening, rejuvenation, and the triumph of light over darkness.

The lizard’s journey from blindness to sight may have symbolised the cycle of death and rebirth, a theme prevalent in various ancient myths. This transformation through the sun—a universal symbol of life and energy—suggests that the lizard harnesses the power of light to rejuvenate itself, embodying the hope of new beginnings and the eternal return to life.

Its dependence on sunlight to regain its vision connects it to solar deities and sun worship found in many ancient cultures. This myth highlights the sun's role as a healer and restorer, making the saura a creature closely tied to the divine power of the sun.

The lizard’s orientation toward the east—the direction of the rising sun—parallels Christian traditions of praying toward the east, where Christ was believed to return. The lizard's behaviour might symbolise the soul's journey towards divine truth, urging believers to look towards Christ, the light of the world, for salvation.

Saura lacertus quando senescit cecantur ocu-
li eius et intrat in foramen parietis. Aspici-
ens contra orientem et orto sole; intendit. et
illuminatur.

When the saura lizard grows old, its eyes become blind and it enters a crack in the wall. Facing the east and as the sun rises, it gazes at the sun and regains its sight.

Further Reading

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Snake, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Latin word anguis broadly refers to all types of snakes, deriving from its serpentine, angular shape that never lies straight. Another term, cŏlŭbĕr, is used for snakes that are often found in shady places or that glide through slippery, winding paths, reflecting their sinuous movement. The term serpens describes snakes as they slither through hidden routes, moving silently with tiny scales, unlike the more open and visible paths.

In contrast, creatures like lizards and geckos, which crawl on four legs, are categorized as reptilĭa or reptiles. These animals move differently, typically on their bellies and chests. The diversity of snake species is matched by their variety of poisons and dangers, illustrating a spectrum of perils and sorrows associated with their different colours and forms.

The snake was often associated with temptation and sin, particularly due to its role in the Biblical story of the Garden of Eden. In Genesis, the serpent tempts Eve to eat the forbidden fruit, leading to the fall of man. This narrative established the snake as a symbol of temptation, deceit, and the introduction of sin into the world. In medieval Christian thought, this symbolism extended to represent the dangers of succumbing to temptation and the moral struggles against sin.

This creature was frequently linked with the Devil or Satan, drawing on its role in the Eden narrative. Its stealthy, sinuous movement and its venomous nature made it a fitting metaphor for malevolent forces and spiritual corruption.

Its cunning and ability to move quietly and unnoticed were symbolic of deception and falsehood. It represented the subtle and insidious nature of lies and deceit that can lead individuals astray from the path of righteousness. This representation emphasised the need for vigilance and discernment in the face of deceitful influences.

Interestingly, the snake also had positive connotations in some contexts. In Christian symbolism, the serpent was sometimes associated with healing and redemption. This is seen in the symbol of the brazen serpent (Numbers 21:8-9)[1], which was used by Moses to heal the Israelites from its bites. This symbolism foreshadowed the healing and redemptive power of Christ, who, like the brazen serpent, brings salvation and healing to humanity.

Anguis omnium serpentium commune est. vocabu-
lum. Et dicitur anguis; quod angulosus sit. et
numquam rectus. Colubrum ab eo aiunt dictum; quod
colit umbras. vel quod in lubricos tractus flexibus
sinuosis labatur. Nam lubricum dicitur quicquid
labitur dum tenetur; ut piscis. serpens. Serpens no-
men accepit; quia occultis accessibus serpit. non apertis
passibus. set squamarum minutissimis nisibus repit
Ille enim que quatuor pedibus repunt(dots underneath) nituntur. sicut la-
certe et stelliones; non serpentes sed reptilia dicuntur
Reptilia autem sunt que ventre et pectore reptant;
Quorum tot sunt venena; quot genera. tot pernici-
es. quot species. tot dolores; quot colores; habentur.

The word anguis[2], snake, is a common name for all snakes. It is called anguis, for it is serpentine, angŭlōsus and never straight. The term cŏlŭbĕr[1], snake, is said to be derived from its tendency to dwell in shady places or for it glides through slippery paths with winding curves. In fact, lūbrĭcus means slippery, sinuous and is used to describe anything that slips when held, like a fish or a snake. The name serpens[3], snake or serpent, is given, for it moves through hidden passages, not through open paths but by creeping with its very small scales. Those creatures that crawl with four legs, like lizards and geckos, are not called snakes but are termed reptilĭa, reptiles. Reptiles are those that crawl on their belly and chest. There are as many kinds of poisons as there are types of these creatures, as many perils as there are species and as many sorrows as there are colours among them.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Snake, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast264.htm

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014, Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Wikipedia: The Elephant, 28 November 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., (2010), The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures, HarperCollins UK, London

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Numbers NKJV 21:8-9: 8 Then the Lord said to Moses, “Make a fiery serpent, and set it on a pole; and it shall be that everyone who is bitten, when he looks at it, shall live.”
So Moses made a bronze serpent, and put it on a pole; and so it was, if a serpent had bitten anyone, when he looked at the bronze serpent, he lived.

[2] Although the words anguis and cŏlŭbĕr can be both translated as snake, there is a slight difference between them. Anguis often implies a more specific or potentially dangerous type of snake, whereas cŏlŭbĕr often refers to a type of snake that is typically non-venomous or less dangerous. The term is more neutral and can describe a range of snake species.

[3] The term serpens is a general word for a snake or serpent derived from the Latin verb serpo which means to creep or to crawl, reflecting the snake’s method of movement. It is commonly used in both literal and figurative contexts to refer to snakes in general without implying particular characteristics of venom or danger.