Ostrich, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The ostrich was called assida, was known to the Greeks as strouthokámilos and to the Latins as struthio. It is a fascinating creature with a unique behaviour. Despite having wings, it cannot fly and has feet similar to the feet of a camel. When the time comes to lay its eggs, the ostrich gazes at the sky, waiting for the appearance of the star Virgilia. It only lays its eggs when this star rises, typically around June. The ostrich buries its eggs in the ground and covers them with sand, then leaves, never returns to them. The summer heat incubates the eggs and the warmth of the dust helps them hatch.

This behaviour serves as a metaphor for humans. If the ostrich can recognize its time and forsake its offspring, focusing instead on celestial matters, how much should humans strive for their heavenly calling? God became men to save humanity from darkness and elevate them to His glorious kingdom.

Ostriches are also seen as symbolic of hypocrisy. Souls that claim to serve God but are involved in worldly affairs are considered hypocrites. Isaiah criticizes such hypocrites, saying they will dwell in a land inhabited by dragons and ostriches, symbolising deceit and rage. Job mentions the ostrich's wings, comparing them to those of storks and hawks and states that he is a companion to both dragons and ostriches, indicating that saints must coexist with both overtly wicked and deceitful individuals. According to Leviticus, the ostrich is deemed unclean and should not be eaten, symbolising that those serving God should avoid secular entanglement. Such individuals, though appearing religious, are corrupted by their earthly desires.

This allegory emphasises the importance of prioritizing spirituality over worldly pursuits, staying true to one's faith and avoiding the pitfalls of hypocrisy.

Est animal quo dicitur assida quod greci stra-
tecamelon vocant. latini vero strucion. ha-
bet quidem pennas sed non volat. Pedes autem
cameli similes. Cum vero venerit tempus ut ova
sua pariat; elevat oculos suos ad celum. et in-
tendit si stella que dicitur virgilia appareat.
Non enim ponit ova sua nisi quando oritur stella illa.
Quando autem viderit circa mensem iunium ipsam
stellam; fodit in terram ova sua. et cooperit
sabulo. Cum ascenderit de loco illo; statim ob-
liviscitur eorum. et numquam redit ad ova sua.
Tranquillitas ad quidem aeris et temperies hoc pres-
tare videtur. ut estate calefacta arena; ex-
coquat ova sua. et fotu pulveris animentur.
et producat pullos. Si ergo assida cognoscit
tempus suum et obliviscitur posteritatis sue.
ac terrena postponens sequitur celestia; quanto
magis o homo tibi ad bravium superne vocatio-
nis tendendum est; Propter quem deus homo
factus est. ut eriperet de potestate tenebrarum
et collocaret cum principibus populi sui in
regno glorie sue. Strutiones etiam dicuntur ypocrite.

This animal is called assida, which the Greeks call στρουθοκάμηλος/strouthokámilos and the Latins call struthio. It has wings but does not fly. Its feet are similar to those of a camel. When the time comes for it to lay its eggs, it raises its eyes to the sky and waits to see if the star called Virgilia[2] appears. It does not lay its eggs unless that star rises. When it sees that star around the month of June, it buries its eggs in the ground and covers them with sand. As soon as it leaves that place, it immediately forgets about them and never returns to its eggs. The stillness and warmth of the air seem to make it so that, during summer, the heated sand incubates the eggs and the warmth of the dust gives them life and hatches them. If the ostrich knows its time, forgets about its offspring and strives for earthly things instead of heavenly ones, then how much more, O man, should you strive for the prize of the heavenly calling?[3] For your sake, God became man to rescue you from the power of darkness and place you with the leaders of His people in His kingdom of glory. Ostriches are also believed to be hypocrites.

sice anime deo militantes. et seculi negotiis se in-
plicantes. Unde de ypocritis qui alas et speciem sci -
tatis habent set non rem; dicit ysaias contra perversam
mentem; sub spetie iudee. Erit cubile draconum. et
pascua strutionum. Et iterum per prophetam. Glo-
rificabit me bestia agri. dracones et strutiones
hinc dominus ad iob. Penna strutionis; similis est. penne
horodii et accipitris. Item iob. Frater sui draconum.
et sotius strutionum. Sancti enim quandiii sunt in hoc
seculo; habitare noverunt et pacem habere cum
draconibus id est aperte sevientibus. et cum strutionibus
id est fictis et ypocritis et occulte malis. Hec avis;
in levitico inter inmundas reputatur. nec comme-
di debet; quia nemo militans deo inplicans se
negotiis secularibus; imitandus est. Inmundus enim
est; qui religionis habitum habet et lectionibus
in celestibus fertur. et tamen per vite cupiditatem; cira
terram sempter habitat.

Thus, the souls who serve God and are involved in worldly matters are hypocrites. Hence, concerning hypocrites who have the appearance and semblance of knowledge but not the reality, Isaiah speaks against the perverse mind, under the guise of Judea: "It will be a dwelling place for dragons and a pasture for ostriches."[4] Isaiah again: "The wild beasts of the field will honour me, the dragons and the ostriches."[5] Hence, the Lord says to Job: "The wing of the ostrich is similar to the wing of the stork and the hawk." Also in Job: "He is a brother to dragons and a companion to ostriches."[7] In fact, saints, as long as they are in this world, know how to live and be at peace with dragons, that is, with openly raging ones, and with ostriches, that is, with false, hypocritical and secretly evil ones. This bird is enumerated among the unclean animals in Leviticus and should not be eaten, for no one who serves God should involve themselves in secular matters: they are unclean, wear the garment of religion and are engaged in celestial matters; due to the desire for life, they always dwell on earthly matters.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Ostrich, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast238.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The ostrich had various names in Latin: struthiocamēleus, assida or aspida or struthio.

[2] There is no star known as Virgilia in current astronomical catalogues or literature. The term Virgilia seems to appear in other contexts, such as a genus of plants or within specific cultural references, but not as an astronomical body. It is possible that Virgilia could be a historical or mythological reference rather than a recognized celestial body. The description in your text might refer to a star associated with a particular myth or ancient tradition, rather than an actual star known by astronomers today.

[3] The phrase "prize of the heavenly calling" alludes to the idea of striving for spiritual goals, reminiscent of Biblical exhortations to pursue faith and righteousness (e.g., Philippians 3:14: "I press on toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus").

[4] Isaiah NKJV 34:13: And thorns shall come up in its palaces, Nettles and brambles in its fortresses; It shall be a habitation of jackals, A courtyard for ostriches.

[5] Isaiah NKJV 43:20: The beast of the field will honor Me, The jackals and the ostriches, Because I give waters in the wilderness And rivers in the desert, To give drink to My people, My chosen.

[6] Job NKJV 39:13: “The wings of the ostrich wave proudly, But are her wings and pinions like the kindly stork’s?

Halcyon, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The halcyon[1] is found in Greek mythology. Initially, it was a woman, Alcyone, the wife of Ceryx, who embarked on a voyage to consult the oracle of Apollo. Zeus had been offended by Alcyone, so he sent a storm to drown her husband Ceryx. However, Alcyone’s mourning was so sorrowful that she drowned herself when she saw her husband’s dead body. The gods turned her into a bird and, as she continued her mourning, Ceryx’s body was also changed into a halcyon.

The halcyon is known for laying its eggs on the shores around midwinter when the sea is most turbulent. During this critical time, the tumultuous sea mysteriously calms down and the winds subside, providing a serene environment for the halcyon to hatch its eggs. Sailors celebrate this period of tranquillity, lasting fourteen days, as the halcyon days.

This phenomenon invites us to reflect on our faith and trust in the goodness of God. Just as the halcyon, an irrational creature, trusts in divine protection amidst storms and tempests, we, who are created in the image of God, should have even greater faith. The halcyon's confidence in the face of adversity expounds a profound lesson: if we have faith, even as small as a mustard seed, we too can overcome great challenges. The halcyon days remind us that trust in divine providence can bring peace and calm to the most tumultuous times in our lives.

Altionis quoque nomen licet non repperiatur
in canone; vel in sacra scriptura. quia eius
natura moraliter nos instruit; de ea dicemus
aliqua. Altion igitur que romane dicitur mawe;
avis est maritima. que in littoribus fetus suos
edere solet. ita ut arenis ova sua deponat medio
fere hiemis. Nam id temporis fovendis habet depu-
tatum partibus; quando maxime insurgit mare.
et vehementior fluctus; litoribus illuditur. quo
magis repentine placiditatis solempnitate; avis

Although the name of this bird is not found in the canonical scriptures, for its nature instructs us morally, we will say something about it. The halcyon is a sea bird that usually begets its nestlings on the shores, depositing the eggs in the sand around midwinter. It chooses as the time to hatch its eggs the moment when the sea is at its highest and the waves break more fiercely than usual on the shore. During this time, the gracefulness of this bird radiates in the calmness that suddenly follows[2]. When the bird lays its eggs, the stormy sea suddenly calms down and all the gales and blasts of wind subside. The sea remains calm until this bird hatches its eggs. The halcyon incubates its eggs for seven days and generates its chicks after the seven days. It then spends another seven days nurturing and caring for them until they begin to grow. These fourteen days are called halcyon days[3] by sailors, during which they are assured of the sea's tranquillity and the weather’s calmness.

huius eluceat gratia. Nam undosum mare po-
sitis ovis; subito mitescit. et omnes cadunt
ventorum procelle. flatusque aurarum mitescunt.
ac placidum ventis; stat mare; donec ova fo-
veat hec avis. Diebus septem fovet ova sua.
quibus decursis; producit pullos. Adiungit ali-
os septem dies quibus nutrit eos et fovet donec
incipiant adolescere. Hos .xiiii. dies naute vo-
cant altionitas. quibus securi sunt de tranquil-
litate maris et temporis. Ecce qualiter hec
avis nos invitat. un non simus modice fidei sed
securi presumamus de bonitate dei. qui in se spe-
rantes liberat ab omni periculo. Qui si ha-
beamus fidem tanquam granum sinapis;
dicemus monti huic ut transferat se in mare
et transferet se. Quid igitur dubitatis modice fi-
dei; Multis passeribus et altionibus omnibus;
meliores estis vos. qui non irrationales estis
ut altiones; sed ad ymaginem dei creati. Alti-
on enim que irrationalis est; tempestates
videns insurgere. sevire ventos. fluctus contra
se mugire. secura de dei bonitate; timore non

See how this bird invites us not to be of little faith but to confidently trust in the goodness of God, who delivers those who hope in Him from all danger. If we have faith as a mustard seed, we could say to this mountain to move into the sea and it would move[4]. O men of little faith, why do you doubt then? You are more valuable than many sparrows[5] and all the halcyons: you are more rational than the halcyon and created in the image of God. The irrational halcyon, seeing the storms rise, the winds rage and the waves roar, feels confident in the goodness of God

reflectitur; sed inpellitur. et statim quiescunt
maria. et venti; quasi ad meritum fidei altio-
nis. Quanta igitur faciet homo ad dei ymanginem
creatus si fidem altionis habeat.

and is not paralysed by fear but is urged. The seas immediately calm down and the winds subside, as if it were thanks to the halcyon's faith. How much more, then, will a man, created in the image of God, achieve if he has the faith of a halcyon?

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Kingfisher, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast240.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The Latin name for the halcyon or kingfisher was alcўōn or halcўōn or altion.

[2] The bird's grace is emphasized during this period of sudden peace. It suggests that the bird has a calming effect on the environment, aligning with the mythological belief in "halcyon days"—a period of calm seas during the bird’s nesting time. The term "halcyon days" originates from Greek mythology, where it was believed that the halcyon (kingfisher) calmed the sea during its nesting period. This passage reflects that belief, showing the bird's association with both turbulent and calm seas.

[3] The term "halcyon days" refers to a period of calm. According to the myth, the halcyon bird was said to nest on the sea and calm the waves during the winter solstice. The gods granted a period of calm weather, known as the halcyon days, during which the bird could lay its eggs.

[4] Matthew NKJV 17:20: So Jesus said to them, “Because of your unbelief; for assuredly, I say to you, if you have faith as a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, ‘Move from here to there,’ and it will move; and nothing will be impossible for you.

[5] Matthew NKJV 10:31: Do not fear therefore; you are of more value than many sparrows.

Heron, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Named ardĕa, suggesting height (ardŭa) due to its lofty flight, the heron is mentioned by Lucan for its daring ascents. It avoids rainstorms by soaring above the clouds but signals impending storms when it flies even higher. Referred to by some as tantălus, linking it to the legend of Tantalus among the waters, the heron resembles a crane with its long legs and neck and typically inhabits riversides.

Patiently standing and hunting for fish, the heron, also called heiro/heirnous by the Romans, symbolises the contemplative life. It embodies those who focus on heavenly matters, removed from worldly worries and draw spiritual nourishment from the sacred scriptures, akin to the heron's serene existence by the water.

Ardea licet in canone non inveniatur; tamen
quia eius in ores nos instruunt; pauca
de ea dicemus. Ardea igitur dicitur; quasi ardua.
propter altos volatus. Unde lucanus. Quodque
ausa avolare ardea. Formidat enim inibres.
et super nubes evolat; ut procellas imbrium
sentire non possit. Cum autem altius volave-
rit; significat tempestatem. Hanc multi tanta;

Although the heron is not found in the canonical scriptures, its nature instructs us morally and we will say a few words about it. The heron, ardĕa, is called as such as if from ardŭa, meaning high, due to its lofty flight. Hence, Lucan (Civil War 5.553) says:

“And that the heron dared to fly.” It fears rainstorms and flies above the clouds so that it cannot feel the stormy rains. However, when it flies higher, it means that a storm is about to strike.

lum vocant. Quia tantalus inter aquas
secundum fabulas dicitur esse. Hec enim avis similis
grui in longitudine tibiarum et colli; iuxta
flumina libenter habitat. stanset sollicite in-
quirens piscem aliquem sibi fore predam. et di-
citur romane heyrun. Hec avis bene con-
tempatiuum significat. cuius vita est in celestibus
et remota a tempestate curarum seculi; iuxta
fluenta sacre scripture residentem inde sibi spi-
ritualem cibum unde anima vivat elicien-
tem

Many call this bird tantălus, for Tantalus[1] is said to be among the waters as legend has it. This bird resembles a crane in the length of its legs and neck and habitually lives near rivers. It stands carefully, seeking fish as prey and the Romans also called it heiro/heirnous. This bird well symbolises the life of the comtemplative, whose existence is in heavenly things and remote from the storm of worldly worries, residing near the streams of the sacred scriptures and drawing from them spiritual food for the soul to live on.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Heron, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast540.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Tantalus is a figure from Greek mythology, known for his punishment in the afterlife. He was the son of Zeus and the nymph Plouto, and he was a king, often associated with either Lydia, Sipylus, or Phrygia. Tantalus is most famous for his egregious crimes and the severe punishment he received as a result. As a punishment for his crimes, Tantalus was condemned to eternal torment in Tartarus, a deep abyss in the underworld. He was made to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches would rise out of his grasp. Similarly, whenever he bent down to drink the water, it would recede before he could take a sip. Thus, he was forever tormented by hunger and thirst.

Goose, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The goose has a fascinating nature that captures our interest. Classified as an unclean bird like the duck, it is not recommended for consumption due to its webbed toes and ability to live on land and on water. Remarkably, the goose, akin to the cock, commands multiple mates and vigilantly watches over the night with its incessant honking.

Unique in its sharp sense of smell, the goose famously alerted ancient Romans of the Gauls' approach on Capitoline Hill with its honking, acting as a vigilant sentry when the gods themselves were asleep. This event led Romans to honour geese with sacrifices, recognising their crucial role in defending the city, even above their gods. Thus, the geese earned a revered place in Rome's history, remembered as the city's unlikely but heroic protectors.

In a Christian context, the goose's vigilant nature was often seen as a metaphor for spiritual alertness. Christians were encouraged to be as watchful as the goose, remaining alert to spiritual dangers and temptations, always ready to defend their faith. Its ability to live on land and on water was sometimes seen as a representation of the dual nature of humans, who must navigate both the physical and spiritual realms. This duality served as a reminder of the importance of balancing worldly life with spiritual duties.

Anseris quoque naturam licet de eo nichil s2c-
batur in sacra scriptura; audire delectat. Inmun-
da tn avis presumitur esse. sicut et anas. nec eo sed
legem licitum est vesci. quia clausum pellicula habet
pedem. et ideo non dundit ungulam. Preterea et
in terra et in aqua valens. et ideo inmundus. Anser
multis aucis uxoribus suis; dominatur. sicut et gallus.
Anser vigilias noctis assiduitate clangoris testatur.
Nullum quoque animal it odorem hominis sentit;
ut anser. Unde et clangore eius quasi buccina op-
timi vigilis; gallorum ascensus in capitolio deprehensus
est. Anseribus igitur debes roma quod regnas. Dii tui
dormiebant. et vigilabant ansere. Ideo illis die-
bus anseri sacrificas; et non iovi. Cedunt enim dii uri-
anseribus a quibus se sciunt esse defensos;
ne et ipsi ab hostibus caperentur.

Although nothing about the nature of the goose is written in the sacred scriptures, it is still pleasing to hear about it. It is supposed to be an unclean bird, like the duck, and man is not allowed to eat it according to the law, for its toes are connected by a membrane[1]; therefore, it does not have a split hoof. Moreover, it is capable of living both on land and in water; therefore, it is considered unclean. The goose, like the cock, dominates its many wives. The goose also watches the night with its persistent honking. No other animal senses the smell of a human as keenly as the goose. Hence, its honking, like the trumpet of an excellent sentry, detected the approach of the Gauls on the Capitoline Hill[2]. Thus, Rome owes to the geese the fact that you reign. Your gods were sleeping but the geese were watching. Therefore, in those days, you sacrifice to the goose and not to Jupiter. The gods yield to the geese by whom they know they were defended, so that they themselves would not be captured by the enemy.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Goose, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast538.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The foot of a goose is called a "webbed foot." Geese, like other waterfowl, have webbed feet, which consist of toes connected by a membrane, or webbing. This adaptation helps them to swim efficiently in water.

[2] The reference to the Gauls in the passage pertains to the historical event of the Gallic invasion of Rome in 390 BCE. During this invasion, the Gauls, led by Brennus, attacked and captured most of the city. However, the Romans held out on the Capitoline Hill. According to legend, the sacred geese of Juno, kept on the Capitoline Hill, played a crucial role in the defence of the city. The story goes that while the Gauls attempted a night assault on the hill, the geese were disturbed and began honking loudly, alerting the Roman defenders to the stealthy approach of the Gauls. The noise made by the geese awakened the Romans, allowing them to repel the attack and ultimately contributing to the survival of the city during this critical moment.

Owl, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The owl, named for its distinctive hooting, is a feathered, sluggish bird that resides in caves and hollows both day and night. According to Ovid, it is a "loathsome bird, messenger of approaching sorrow," seen as a dire omen. Augurs believed its presence in town heralded desolation. In Leviticus, the owl symbolises the contemplative or believers overwhelmed by earthly worries, deemed an unclean bird whose actions should not be imitated.

Isidore states that the night owl (noctŭa) and the night heron (nyctĭcŏrax) are the same, although Deuteronomy lists them separately among unclean birds, suggesting they are different. The night owl, he believed, flies at night and is blinded by daylight. Ambrose adds that its sight weakens in the sun, causing it to wander aimlessly in bright light. Notably, Crete lacks this bird and any that arrive die immediately.

Isidore differentiates the larger owl (būbo) from the smaller night owl (noctŭa), associating the night heron (nyctĭcŏrax) with the owl (būbo) due to its nocturnal nature. These birds, unclean in Leviticus and Deuteronomy, represent actions to be avoided, such as fornication and lust, paralleling the Gentiles' nocturnal prey.

The screech owl (strix), noted for its cries, differs from the aforementioned birds. Lucan describes its lament alongside the horned owl. The screech owl, called amma for its care for its owlets, symbolises those who study stars and constellations, delve into darkness, and believe they understand the heavens. Yet, they fail to see Christ, the true light, remaining blind leaders of the blind.

Bubo a sono vocis; compositum nomen habet. non in alio
Avis feralis. honusta quidem plumis. set gra-
vis semper decenta pigricie. In speluncis die ac noc-
te moratur. et semper commorans in cavernis. De qua
ovidius. Fedaque sit volucris venturi iiiintia luctus;
Ignavus bubo. durum mortalibus omen. Denique
apud augures; malum portendere fertur. Nam
cum in urbe visa fuerit; solitudinem significare di-
cunt. In levitico hec avis contemplatiuum vel quem
libet fidelem significat. cuius conversatio in celis esse
deberet. sed tristatur de commissione terrenorum Unde
et ibi inter inmundas aves reputatur. cuius car-
nibus vesci illicitum est; idest acciones imitari. Se-
culi enim tristicia mortem operatur. Qui autem deum
diligit debet gaudere. sine intermissione orare. in omnibus
gracias agere.

The owl gets its name from the sound of its hooting; it has a compound name. It is a wild bird, loaded with feathers, constrained by sluggishness. It dwells in caves both day and night but always remains in clefts and hollows. Ovid writes thereof: “He has become a loathsome bird, messenger of approaching sorrow, the lazy owl (bubo), a dire omen for mortals.” (Met. 5.549). Augurs believed this bird to portend bad omen: when it is seen in town, it is believed to portend desolation. In Leviticus, this bird signifies the contemplative or any believer whose way of life should be in the heavens but is beset by earthly worries. Hence, the owl is enumerated among the unclean birds whose flesh it is forbidden to eat, that is, whose actions are not to be imitated. Worldly sorrow leads to death but he who loves God ought to rejoice, pray uninterruptedly and give thanks in all things.

Noctua et nicticorax secundum ysidorum eadem avis
est. licet in deuteronomio cum una numeretur
inter inmundas aves; statim subiungatur de alia.
quod et ipsa inter inmundas aves habenda sit. Quod
quidem videtur probare quod diverse sint aves. Noctua
igitur sive nicticorax secundum ysidorum dicitur; quod nocte
circumvolet et per diem non possit videre. Nam ex orto
splendore solis; visus illius tanquam habentis glaucas
oculorum pupillas ut dicit ambrosius; hebetatur.
Et quantum fuerit vox obscurior; eo contra usum
aliarum avium; in offensos exercet volatus. Solis
autem lumen illius tenebre est. Et quanto di-
es clarior. tanto plus in ea quasi in tenebris ober-
rat. Hanc autem cretensis insula non habet. et si-
veniat aliunde; statim moritur. Noctua autem
non est bubo ut dicit ysidorus; nam bubo maior
est. Nicticorax; ipsa est noctua. quia noctem amat
Est enim avis lucifuga et solem videre non patitur.
Hec avis in levitico sive in deuteronomio inter inmun-
das reputatur. cuius carne vesci illicitum est. quia
nemo actionem illius imitari debet; qui noctis operibus

According to Isidore, the night owl, noctŭa and the night heron, nyctĭcŏrax, are the same bird, although they are enumerated among the unclean birds in Deuteronomy; another bird is mentioned immediately after and regarded as unclean: this seems to prove that they are different birds. Isidore believed that the night owl or night heron flew about at night and could not see during the day. The bright light of the sun weakens its sight, as Ambrose[1] says. Unlike other birds, its screech is hoarse and flies about in the dark where it may bump into obstacles. However, the light of the sun is its darkness. The brighter the day, the more it wanders about as if it were in the dark. The island of Crete does not have this bird and should it come from elsewhere, it immediately dies. However, the owl, būbo, is not the same as the little owl, noctŭa, as Isidore says, for the owl, būbo, is larger. The night heron (or night raven), nyctĭcŏrax, is the same as the owl, būbo, for it loves the night. It is a nocturnal bird and cannot endure the sun. This bird is regarded as unclean in Leviticus or Deuteronomy and its flesh is not to be eaten: its actions should not be imitated by those who crave the works of the night

inhiat. Que sunt fornicatio. Inmundicia. Inpu-
dicicia. et cetera. Tales erant gentes. quia nicticorax tamen
nocte rapit. Et est nicticorax quasi noctis corvus.
Vel hec avis figuram tenet iudeorum qui non potue-
runt videre christum verum solem qui illuminat O
ho vi h mundum. Et plus dilexerunt tenebras.
quam lucem. Unde dixerunt. Non habemus regem nisi
cesarem. Et attende quod strix nocturua avis; alia
avis est; quam noctua. vel nicticorax. vel aliqa aliarum
premissarum. quia eam post alias ponit ysidorus. Strix enim
dicitur; quia cum clamat; stridet. De qua lucanus.
Quod trepidus bubo quod stric nocturna queriuntur.
Hec strix; vulgo dicitur anima. ab amando parvu-
los. Unde et lac prebere fertur nascentibus. Noctua igitur
sive nocticorax sive strix que est nocturna avis sig-
nificare possunt illos qui in nocte stellas contem-
plantur et cursus siderum. demoniorum tenebrosa
rimantur. et celi altitudinem se videre credunt. des-
cribentes radio mundum mensuram quoque aeris col-
ligentes. lumen tamen quod christus est. nec fidem eius qui in proxi-
mo est. quia ceci sunt et duces cecorum; videre non possunt.

such as fornication, lust, sexual impurity and so on. Such were the Gentiles, for the night heron preys at night. The night heron is similar to the night raven. This bird represents the Jews who could not see Christ, the true sun who illuminates the world. They loved darkness more than light. Hence, they shouted, "We have no king but Caesar."[2]

Note that the strix, the screech owl, a nocturnal bird, is different from the owl, the night heron or any of the other aforementioned birds, for Isidore lists it after the others. The strix is called so, for it screeches when it cries. Lucan says thereof: “That which the restless horned owl and the nocturnal strix lament” (Civil War 6.689). The screech owl is commonly called amma[3], for it loves its own owlets, whence it is said to provide milk to its hatchlings. Therefore, the owl or night heron or screech owl, which is a nocturnal bird, may symbolise those who contemplate the stars at night and the motion of constellations, who examine the darkness of demons and those who believe they can see the height of the heavens by drawing the world with the surveying rod and by measuring the air. However, they cannot see the light, which is Christ, nor can they perceive the faith of those who are near, for they are blind and leaders of the blind.

Ulula est avis a luctu vel planctu nominata. Cum
enim clamat; aut fletum imitatur; aut gemitum non in alio
Unde apud augures. filamentetur; tristiciam. tacens;
ostendere prosperitatem; Et est magnitudinis corvine.
sed maculis respersa. que rostro in palude fixo; or-
ribiliter ululat et stridet. Significat hec avis;

The screech owl is a bird named after mourning or weeping. For when he cries, he either imitates a cry, or a moan. And it is of the size of a raven, but sprinkled with spots, which fixed its beak in the marsh, howls and screeches horribly. This bird signifies

mistice demones sive hereses et vicia alia que
habitant in mente confusa. Unde ysaias de b-
bilone dicit post alia. Et respondebunt ibi ulu-
le; in edibus eius. et sirene in edibus voluptatis.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Owl, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast538.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The text is most probably referring to Saint Ambrose, known as Ambrose of Milan, who was a prominent church father and theologian, known for his influential writings and contributions to Christian doctrine. Ambrose of Milan did write about various topics, including nature and animals.

[2] John NKJV 19:15: But they cried out, “Away with Him, away with Him! Crucify Him!” Pilate said to them, “Shall I crucify your King?” The chief priests answered, “We have no king but Caesar!”

[3] Probably from the verb amāre to love.

Phoenix, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The phoenix is not mentioned in sacred scriptures but is known through nature. It is a unique bird of Arabia with a beautiful Phoenician purple colour. According to Arab traditions, the phoenix lives for five hundred years or more. When it feels its time has come, it builds a pyre from aromatic twigs and ignites it by facing the sun and flapping its wings, burning itself voluntarily. On the ninth day, it rises from its ashes, symbolising resurrection, similar to Jesus Christ’s declaration, "I have the power to lay down my life and to take it up again." This comparison emphasises Christ's divine authority to die and rise again, challenging those who doubt His power.

Ambrose explains that the phoenix, sensing its end, constructs a nest of frankincense, myrrh and other spices. As it dies, a worm emerges from its body, growing into a new phoenix. This allegory reinforces the belief in resurrection, showing that if a mere bird can rise again, so too can Christ. The phoenix, without any example or reasoning, teaches us to believe in resurrection, just as a grain that falls to the earth must die to produce new life.

Birds exist for man's benefit and their stories serve as an example. The creator who does not allow this unique bird to perish surely will not abandon His saints. Men should prepare for death by embracing Christ as their protective sheath, filled with the virtues of chastity, mercy and justice. Just as Paul, who declared, "I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith," prepared for his end with the fragrances of martyrdom, we too should embrace our mortality and have faith in the resurrection.

Fenix quoque licet in sacra scriptura noninveniatur;
quia tamen nos natura eius instruit; pauca de
eo dicemus. Fenix igitur est. arabie avis. sic dicta; quod
colorem pheniceum habeat. Vel quod sit in toto or-
be singularis et unica. Nam arabes singularem et
unicam fenicem vocant. Hec quingentos et ultra annos
vivens. dum se viderit senuisse collectis aroma-
tum virgultis; rogum sibi instruit. et conversa
ad radium solis alarum plausu voluntarium sibi

The phoenix is not found in sacred scriptures and is known to us through nature; we will say just a few things thereof. The phoenix is a bird of Arabia : its colour is Phoenician purple and is unique and singular in the whole world. The Arabs regarded it as singular and unique. This bird lives for five hundred years or more. When it sees that it has grown old, it gathers aromatic twigs, builds a pyre for itself and by turning toward the sun’s rays and flapping its wings,

incendium nutrit. seque urit. Postea vero die no-
na; avis de cineribus suis surgit. Huius figuram
gerit dominus noster iesus christus. qui dicit. Potestatem ha-
beo ponendi animam meam et iterum sumendi
eam. Si ergo phenix mortificandi et vivificandi se
potestatem habet. cur stulti homines irascuntur in
verbo dei qui verus dei filius est. qui dicit. Potesta-
tem habeo et cetera. Descendit namque salvator noster
de celo. alas suavitatis. odoribus novi et veteris ~
testamenti replevit. et in ara crucis seipsum pro nobis
deo patri obtulit. et tercia die resurrexit.

it voluntarily kindles a fire and burns itself. Afterward, on the ninth day, it rises from its ashes. This represents Our Lord Jesus Christ, who said, "I have the power to lay down my life and to take it up again."[2] Therefore, if the phoenix has the power to die and come back to life, why do foolish men get angry at the word of the Lord, who is truly the Son of God, who says, "I have the power," and so on? Our Saviour descended from heaven, filled the wings of sweetness with the fragrances of the Old and New Testaments, sacrificed himself for us to God the Father on the altar of the cross and rose on the third day.

Fenis quoque secundum ambrosium cum sentit sibi
mortem imminere; facte sibi thecam de thure
et mirra. et ceteris aromatibus. Impletoque vite
sue tempore; intrat et moritur. De cuius humore
carnis; vermis exurgit. paulatimque adolescit.
ac processu statuti temporis; induit alarum. re-
migia. atque in superioris avis speciem formamque
reparatur. Non ut diversa; sed quasi eadem; de
materia substancie sue avis resurgat. Quid
dicunt hic heretici. qui negant divine potestati
quod non negant phenici; Fenix vetustatem suam
novitate resurgendi reparavit. et christus resurgere non
potuit. qui potestatem habet ponendi animam
suam. et iterum resumendi eam; Doceat igitur nos avis vel
exemplo sui resurrectionem credere. que et sine exem-
plo et sine rationis perceptione iam sibi insignia re-
surrectionis instaurat. Et quia hoc ipsum nos docet
granum cadens in terram. quod nisi mortificatum
fuerit in semine; non resurgit in renovatione. Et
utique aves propter homines sunt non homines;
propter aves. Sit igitur exemplum nobis quia auctor
et creator omnium sanctos suos in eternum perire non pati-

According to Ambrose[3], when the phoenix feels death approaching, it makes for itself a nest of frankincense and myrrh and other aromatics. When its life is complete, it enters it and dies. From the fluids of its flesh, a worm arises and gradually grows. When the right time comes, it sprouts wings and regains its previous appearance and form: not as a different bird but as if the same bird arose from its own matter. Why do the heretics deny the Divine Power what they do not deny to the phoenix? The phoenix renewed its old age by rising again and Christ could not rise again, although he had the power to lay down his life and take it up again. Let the phoenix teach us in its own way to believe in the resurrection, a bird that rises again without any example to follow and without reasoning. A grain falling into the earth teaches us the same thing: if it dies in the seed, it does not rise again. Indeed, birds exist to benefit men, not men to benefit birds. Let it be an example for us, for the author and creator of all things

tur. qui avem unicam perire non passus est. sed
resurgentem eam sui semine voluit reparari. Quis
igitur huic annuntiat diem mortis ut faciat sibi the-
cam et impleat bonis odoribus atqe ingrediatur
in eam et moriatur illic. ubi odoribus gratis fetor
funeris possit aboleri; Fac et tu homo tibi thecam
et expolians te veterem hominem cum actibus suis;
novum indue. Techa tua et vagina tua christus est. qui te
protegat. et abscondat in die malo. Vis scire quia the-
ca protectio est. Pharetra inquit mea protexi eum.
Thecam ergo habes christum. thecam habes et fidem. thecam
habes et bonam consciam. Hanc imple bonis vir-
tutum odoribus. hoc est castitatis. misericordie. iusti-
cie. Et cognosce diem mortis tue. et ingredere in eam
cum fiducia resurrectionis. sicut cognovit paulus qui
ait. Bonum certamen certavi. cursum consummavi. fi-
dem servavi. Reposita est. michi corona iusticie. Intra-
vit igitur in thecam suam quasi bonus fenix. quam
bono replevit odore martirii.

does not allow his saints to perish forever and has not allowed this only bird to perish but has wanted it to rise from its own seed. Who then prepare themselves for their own death by making a sheath for themselves, filling it with good fragrances, entering it and dying there, where the pleasant odours can outsmell the stench of death? You too, man, make a sheath for yourself, strip yourself of the old man with your deeds and don the clothes of a new man. Your covering and your sheath are Christ, who protects you and hides you on the evil days. Do you want to know why it is your protection? "In my quiver," he says, "I have protected him."[4] Therefore, you have Christ as your covering, also your faith and your good conscience. Fill this with the good fragrances of virtues such as chastity, mercy and justice. Acknowledge the day of your death, embrace it and confide in the resurrection. Paul knew and said, "I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. There is laid up for me a crown of righteousness."[5] He entered his covering as a good phoenix, which he filled with the good fragrances of martyrdom.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Phoenix, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast149.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The phoenix is primarily rooted in ancient Greek mythology. However, the concept of the phoenix has connections to various ancient cultures, including those in Egypt and Persia. The association with Arabia specifically comes from Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian, who mentioned that the phoenix came from Arabia to the Egyptian city of Heliopolis every 500 years to be reborn.

[2] John NKJV 10:18: No one takes it from Me, but I lay it down of Myself. I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it again. This command I have received from My Father.”

[3] The text is most probably referring to Saint Ambrose, known as Ambrose of Milan, who was a prominent church father and theologian, known for his influential writings and contributions to Christian doctrine. Ambrose of Milan did write about various topics, including nature and animals.

[4] Isaiah NKJV 49:2: And He has made My mouth like a sharp sword; In the shadow of His hand He has hidden Me, And made Me a polished shaft; In His quiver He has hidden Me.”

[5] Timothy NKJV 4:7-8: I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. 8 Finally, there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will give to me on that Day, and not to me only but also to all who have loved His appearing.

This passage reflects the Apostle Paul's reflection on his life and ministry, expressing his confidence in having fulfilled his mission and his expectation of receiving a reward from the Lord.

Cinnămolgus, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The cinnămolgus, or cinnamon bird, is a mythical creature described in various ancient and medieval bestiaries. Aristotle referred to this bird as kinnamômon orneon. It is believed to inhabit Arabia and is renowned for building its nests from cinnamon sticks. Since the trees are too tall and the branches too fragile for humans to climb, lead-weighted arrows are used to knock down the nests. This method yields cinnamon that is highly prized by merchants, who pay premium prices for these coveted fruits.

To harvest the cinnamon, people used ingenious methods. For example, Herodotus wrote that Arabian traders would place pieces of meat near the nests. The birds would carry the meat back to their nests, causing the nests to collapse under the weight, thus enabling the collection of cinnamon sticks. Aristotle and other sources described using lead-weighted arrows to knock down the nests from the high branches or cliffs.

Pliny the Elder was sceptical of these tales, suggesting that traders invented these stories to inflate the price of cinnamon. Despite his scepticism, these stories persisted in medieval literature and were featured in bestiaries, which often combined natural history with allegorical tales.

The cinnamon bird was not just a symbol of exotic and rare spices but also represented the allure and mystery of the spice trade in ancient and medieval times. It highlighted the lengths to which people would go to obtain valuable goods like cinnamon.

Cinnamolgus et ipsa est avis arabie. Ita vo-
cata; quod in excelsis nemoribus texit nidos;
ex fructibus cinnami. Et quoniam non possunt homines
ibi conscendere. propter ramorum altitudinem et fra-
gilitatem; eosdem nidos plumbatis appetunt iaculis.
Et sic cinnama illa deponunt. pretiisque amplioribus
vendunt. eo quod hec cinnama magis quam alia mercato-
res probent.

The cinnămolgos is also a bird of Arabia. It is called so, for it weaves its nests on very tall trees, from the fruits of the cinnamon tree. Since men cannot climb up those trees due to the height and fragility of the branches, they aim for those nests with lead-weighted arrows. In this way, they bring down the cinnamon and sell it at higher prices, for merchants prefer these cinnamon fruits to other types of fruit.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Cinnamolgus, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast242.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Nĕmŭs means both forest/wood and tree in Latin.

Hercinia, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The Ercinee birds, named after the Hercynian Forest in Germany where they are found, possess extraordinary feathers. These feathers shine so brilliantly in the dark that they can illuminate a path even on the blackest of nights. When the feathers are scattered on the ground, their glow serves as a guiding light, revealing the course of the journey. The shining plumage acts as a beacon, ensuring travellers can find their way through the densest shadows.

Arcinee aves dicte; ab ercinio saltu germanie;
ubi nascuntur. quarum penne adeo per obscura
emicant; ut quamvis nox densis sit tecta tenebris;
ad presidium dirigendi itineris; iacte in terra luceant.
cursus que vie pateat inditio plumarum fulgentium;

Ercinee birds are named after the Hercynian Forest in Germany wherein they are born. Their feathers shine so brightly in the darkness that even if there were pitch darkness, the feathers, when lying on the ground, would shine to guide the path. The course of the journey is revealed by the glow of the feathers.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hercinia, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast539.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Hoopoe, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The hoopoe bird, when it sees its parents aging and losing their sight, rejuvenates them by plucking their feathers, licking their eyes and warming them up. This act symbolises gratitude, as the bird cares for its parents just as they once cared for it. The passage suggests that if even birds show such care for their parents, humans, being rational, should certainly repay their parents' nourishment. The text emphasizes this point with a biblical law stating that cursing one's parents is punishable by death, likening it to patricide and matricide.

The hoopoe was used to shame humans into better behaviour by showing that even irrational creatures understood and practiced the virtues of care and respect. This contrast was meant to urge humans, as rational beings, to exceed the moral behaviour of animals.

In some interpretations, the hoopoe’s selfless actions were seen as symbolic of Christ’s sacrifice and care for humanity, emphasizing the theme of selfless love and sacrifice for the benefit of others.

The Greeks called it ĕpops due to its attraction to human dung and its filthy habits. With a crest like a helmet, this bird is often found in graveyards and among human waste. Medieval belief held that using its blood could lead to terrifying nightmares about suffocating demons. Symbolically, the hoopoe represents those who, despite their spiritual aspirations, remain fixated on earthly and unclean matters, as Paul condemns such behaviour. In Leviticus, this bird is regarded as unclean and its flesh is forbidden. The hoopoe's association with mourning and death serves as a reminder to avoid worldly sorrow. Instead, those who love God should focus on joy, continual prayer and gratitude.

Avis que dicitur epopus quando viderit paren-
tes suos senuisse et caligasse oculos eorum;
evellit plumas eorum. et oculos eorum lingit. et
calefacit eos. et renovantur parentes eius. Quasi
dicens parentibus sius. Sicut laborastis nutrien-
tes me; similiter ego facio vobis. Si autem hoc fa-
ciunt sibi invicem irrationabiles volucres. quanto
magis rationabiles homines parentum suorum nu-
trimenta mutua reddere debent; quia lex dicit. Qui
maledixerit patri vel matri morte morietur. et est quasi
patricida et matricida dampnabitur.

This bird is called ĕpops, hoopoe: when it sees that its parents have grown old and their sight have blurred, it plucks out their feathers, licks their eyes and warms them up. Then its parents gain new vigour. It is as if it were saying to its parents "Just as you laboured to nurture me, I will do the same for you." If even irrational birds do this for one another, how much more should rational humans repay their parents' nourishment? The law decrees: "Whoever curses his father or mother shall be put to death" and it is as if a parricide and a matricide were condemned.

Huppupam greci appellant; eo quod stercora
humana desideret et fetenti pascatur fimo.
Avis spurcissima. et cristis extentibus galeata.
semper in sepulcris et humano stercore commorans.
Cuius sanguine quisquis se inunxerit dormitum
pergens demones suffocantes se; videbit. Hec avis
significat contemplativum vel quemlibet fide-

The Greeks call the hoopoe[3] ĕpops, for it craves human dung and feeds thereon. It is a very filthy bird, with its crest extended like a helmet. It always dwells on graves and among human filth. If you rub on its blood whilst going to sleep, you will have nightmares about demons trying to strangle you. This bird represents a contemplative person or any believer

lem cuius conversatio in celis debet esse. non in ter-
renis; que paulus stercora reputat. Unde in levi-
tico hec avis inmunda est. cuius carne vesci illicitum est.
quia actio talis hominis imitari non debet. Et maxime
quia hec avis lugubris est et luctum amans. Seculi
enim tristicia; mortem operatur. Qui autem deum
diligit; debet gaudere. sine intermissione orare.
in omnibus; gratias agere;

whose life is supposed to be in heaven, not on earth: Paul regards this as foul. Hence, in Leviticus, this bird is deemed unclean and it is forbidden to eat its flesh. Humans should not imitate such behaviour, chiefly for this bird is baleful and loves grief. Indeed, the sadness of the world brings death. Those who love God should rejoice, pray incessantly and be grateful for everything.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hoopoe, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast243.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The author is using the Greek name ĕpops/ἔποψ. The Latin word for hoopoe is ŭpŭpa.

[2] Exodus NKJV 21:17: “And he who curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death.

[3] The Latin name for the hoopoe was actually ŭpŭpa or hŭpŭpa but the Greeks called it ĕpops.

Pelican, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The pelican, an Egyptian bird living along the Nile, is said to have received its name from Canopus, an ancient city in Egypt, which also referred to Egypt by metonymy. Known for its deep love for its offspring, the pelican's young strike their parents, who in a rage, strike back and kill them. The parents then mourn their dead young for three days, repenting their actions. On the third day, the mother pelican pierces her side with her bill, pours her blood over the dead chicks and revives them. Allegorically, the pelican represents Christ, who created humanity and was struck by them, as mentioned in Isaiah: "I have nourished and brought up children, but they have rebelled against me." Christ, crucified and pierced, shed blood and water to redeem sinners and grant them eternal life, echoing David's words: "I am like a pelican of the wilderness."

Pellicanus avis egiptia habitat in solitudine;
nili fluminis. Unde et nomen sumpsit. Nam cana-
pos egiptus dicitur. Hec avis amatrix est. nimis filiorum.
Que cum genuerit natos; percutiunt parentes suos; in
faciem. sed parentes quasi ad iracundiam provoca-

The pelican is an Egyptian bird that lives in the solitude of the Nile River whence it takes its name. In fact, Cănōpŏs[1] also meant Egypt by metonymy[2]. This bird loves its offspring very much. When it has given birth to its fledglings, they strike their parents in the face. The parents, beside themselves with rage, strike them back and kill them.

ti; repercutiunt eos. et occidunt. Per tridium autem
lugent mortem filiorum; quasi penitentia ducti. Ter-
cia vero die mater eorum rostro percutiens costam suam;
aperit latus suum. et incumbit super pullos suos. et
effundit sanguinem super corpora mortuorum. et sic susci-
tat eos a mortuis. Pellicanus est predicator qui predi-
cat fidem christi. vel ipse dominus noster iesus christus. auctor et condi-
tor totius creature. qui genuit nos. Et cum non
essemus; fecit nos. Nos vero econtrario percussimus eum
in faciem. sicut per ysaiam dicit. Filios enutrivi et ex-
altavi; ipsi autem spreverunt me. Tunc percussimus eum
in faciem; cum servimus creature potius quam creatori.
Iccirco ascendit ipse in altitudinem crucis. percussoque
latere eius exivit sanguis et aqua. quo sanguine
vivificavit peccatores resuscitans eos a peccatis;
ad vitam eternam. Unde david. Similis factus sum
pellicano solitudinis. et cetera.
Onocrotalorum
duo sunt genera. Aliud aquatile. aliud solitudinis.

However, they mourn the death of their children for three days, repenting having done that. On the third day, the mother pierces her side with her beak, opens it, lies over her fledglings and pours her blood over their bodies, thus bringing them back to life. The pelican is the preacher who preaches the faith of Christ or is our Lord Jesus Christ himself, the Creator of all beings, who gave birth to us. When we did not exist, He made us. We, on the contrary, struck Him in the face, as Isaiah said: "I have nourished and brought up children, but they have despised me." We also struck Him in the face when we served the creatures rather than the Creator. Therefore, He ascended to the height of the cross, and when his side was struck (by the spear), blood and water came out. With this blood, he enlivened sinners, raising them from their sins to eternal life. Hence, David says, "I am like a pelican of the wilderness," and so forth.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Pelican, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast244.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Canopos also meant Egypt by metonymy. Canopus (or Canopos) was actually an ancient city located in Egypt, near the western edge of the Nile Delta. It was famous for its temple of Serapis and was known in antiquity for its luxurious lifestyle and as a centre of pilgrimage. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canopus

[2] Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. In this case, Canopus, the name of a city refers to the whole concept of Egypt as a country. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy

[3] Isaiah NKJV 1:2: Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth! For the Lord has spoken: “I have nourished and brought up children, And they have rebelled against Me;

[4] Psalm NKJV 102:6: I am like a pelican of the wilderness; I am like an owl of the desert.

Siren, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Sirens were often depicted as allegories for temptation, particularly sexual temptation and the lure of sensual pleasures. Their beautiful and enchanting songs symbolised the alluring but ultimately destructive nature of sin.

They represented the deceitful nature of worldly attractions that appear pleasant but hide deadly consequences. This aligns with the medieval Christian view that material pleasures and earthly delights could distract believers from their spiritual duties and lead to moral decay.

The vulnerability of sailors to the sirens' songs illustrated the susceptibility of humans to succumb to their base desires and lose their moral and spiritual direction.

While the Sirens are not directly mentioned in the Bible, the themes they represent can be related to biblical teachings on temptation and sin. The Bible contains numerous warnings against succumbing to temptation and the deceitfulness of sin:

Proverbs 7 warns against the seductive lure of an adulterous woman, which can be seen as an allegory similar to the sirens' temptation.

James 1:14-15[1] speak of how each person is tempted when they are lured and enticed by their own desire and how desire, when it has conceived, gives birth to sin and sin, when it is fully grown, brings forth death.

Medieval Christians interpreted the sirens' seductive songs as symbolic of the devil's allurements. The sirens’ ability to distract and ultimately destroy those who listened to them was seen as a metaphor for how Satan could lead souls astray through temptation. This allegorical interpretation reinforced the need for vigilance and moral fortitude to resist such temptations.

Sirene sicut dicit phisiologus mortifera anima-
lia sunt. que a capite usque ad umbilicum fi-
guras habent hominum. Extremas vero partes usque ad
pedes; volatilis habent. et figura musica quoddam
dulcissimum melodie carmen emittunt. Ita ut per
suavitatem vocis auditus hominum a longe navigan-
tium demulceant et ad se trahant. ac nimia suavi-
tatis modulatione perlectant aures. et eos et sensus
eorum in sompnum vertunt. Tunc demum cum vide-

Sirens, as the Physiologus describes, are deadly creatures. They have the shape of humans from the head to the navel but their lower parts, down to their feet, are like birds. They have a gift for singing and are able to emit a sweet melodic song. With the sweetness of their song, they charm and attract the ears of men sailing from afar. With their excessively enchanting melody, they entice the ears and turn them and their senses into sleep. Then, finally, when

rint eos in gravi sompno; subito invadunt.
et dilaniant carnes eorum. et sic per suasionem vo-
cis; ignaros et incantos homines decipiunt; et
mortificant. space ic igitur decipiuntur qui in delitiis
et pompis et volutatibus huius seculi delectantur.
et comediis et tragediis et diversis musicis melo-
diis dissoluti; velut in sompno gravi mentis vigo-
rem amittunt. et subito efficiuntur adversariorum
avidissime prede.

they see them in a deep sleep, they suddenly attack. They tear their flesh, and thus, through the persuasion of their voice, they deceive and kill unsuspecting and enchanted men. In the same way, therefore, those who long for the pleasures, pomp and entertainment of this world are deceived. Those who binge on comedies, tragedies and various musical melodies, as if they were in a deep sleep, lose the vigour of their mind and suddenly fall prey to their adversaries.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Siren, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast246.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] James NKJV 1:14-15: But each one is tempted when he is drawn away by his own desires and enticed. Then, when desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, brings forth death.

Partridge, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The partridge is depicted as a deceitful and impure bird. Males, driven by reckless lust, sometimes mount other males, forgetting their own sex in the process. They are seen as fraudulent in the eyes of God, often stealing each other's eggs. However, deceit brings no lasting reward. When the chicks hear their true mother's call, they instinctively abandon the one who nurtured them and return to their biological mother.

In their fight for mating rights, the defeated male endures intercourse in place of a female and the males' overwhelming lust can even lead to pregnancy through scent alone. This behaviour mirrors the Devil's deceit, as he tries to corrupt God's creation by nurturing the foolish with bodily temptations. When these individuals hear Christ's call, they take up spiritual wings and commit themselves to Him.

Partridges build their nests with great care, using thorny shrubs for protection and covering their eggs with dust. The females often move the chicks to avoid harassment from males. If humans approach, the mother distracts them by pretending to be weak, leading them away from the nest. The chicks, when sensing danger, cleverly hide by lying on their backs and lifting clods of earth with their feet. If discovered, they are sometimes given to ants as food. Eventually, the mothers expose them to the sun near anthills for protection.

Known for their tender, sweet and nourishing meat, partridges perch closely together throughout the year, except during mating season. They become infatuated by lantern at night, making them vulnerable to hunters' nets.

Symbolically, the partridge represents the Devil, as noted in the Book of Jeremiah: "The partridge broods but does not hatch." Despite its impurities, the partridge is not listed among the unclean birds in the Law due to its prudence and wisdom. Its meat is enjoyed by those with refined tastes and it symbolises wisdom and prudence, as described in the writings of Solomon.

Perdix de voce nomen habet. Est avis dolosa
atque inmunda. Nam masculus in masculum
insurgit. et obliviscitur sexum libido preceps.
deo autem fraudulenta;
ut altera alterius ova

The partridge takes its name after its call. It is a deceitful and impure bird, for the male mounts another male and, driven by reckless lust, forgets his sex. However, it is fraudulent in the eyes of God,

diripiat. Verumtamen fraus fructum non habet
Nam dum pulli audiunt vocem proprie genitricis;
naturali quodam instinctu hanc que eos fovit
relinquunt. et ad(added) eam que eos genuit revertuntur.
Dimicant propter connubii iura. et qui vincitur
sustinet venerem; vice femine. Ipsas libido sic agi-
tat. ut se ventus a masculis afflaverit; fiant preg-
nantes odore. Cuius exemplum imitatus est diabolus
qui generationem eterni conditoris rapere conten-
dit. et si quos insipientes et sensu proprii vigoris caren-
tes aliquo modo poterit carere(dots underneath) congregare; fovet
illos illecebris corporalibus. Sed ubi vox christi audita
fuerit ab eis; sumentes sibi alas spirituales; provide
evolant. et se christo commendant.

Nidos faciunt perdices munitione sollerti. Spi-
neis enim fruticibus nidos vestiunt ut animalia
infesta ab eis arceantur. Ovis; stragulum pulvis
est. atque clanculo revertuntur in indicium loci. Con-
versatio frequens fatigat. Plerumque femine transe-
unt pullos; ut mares fallant qui eos sepissime
affligunt; inpatientius adulantes. Si quis homi-
num ubi incubat mater appropinquat; egressa sese
venienti sponte offert. et similata debilitate
pedum vel alarum; quasi statim capi possit;
gressus fingit trardiores. Hoc mendatio illicit et
illudit hominis ut longius a nidis avocentur.
Et tunc demum; longe avolat. Pulli quos perdicis
cum se visos sentiunt; resupinati glebulas pedi-
bus attollunt. quarum optentu tam callide protegun-
tur; ut lateant deprehensi. Cum adhuc pervisi sunt.
a mribus dantur eis in escam; formice. Unde cum
a nidis se removere possunt; ad solem iuxta tumu-
tum formicarum matres illos exponunt. Perdix omnibus nota
avis est. dulcissimas et amantissimas et nutritivas;

for one steals the eggs of another. Nevertheless, deceit bears no fruit. When the chicks hear the voice of their true mother, by a certain natural instinct, they leave the one who nurtured them and return to the one who gave birth to them. They fight over the rights of mating and the one who is defeated endures sexual intercourse in the place of a female. Their lust is so driven that if the wind blows toward them from the males, they become pregnant by the males’ scent. The Devil imitates their example, who tries to seize the creation of the eternal Creator. If he can gather together some foolish people lacking their own strength, he nurtures them with bodily temptations. When they hear the voice of Christ, they take up spiritual wings, fly prudently and commit themselves to Him.

carnens habens. aspectu decora; et mitis. Congre-
gatim sedent multe simul. quanto proprinquius possunt
capita simul vertentes toto anno. nisi a die pu-
rificationis. quo incipiunt ad amorem concitari; et
nidificare. Tunc enim bine et bine sedent; pares
cum paribus. Ad lumen lanterne et ad sonitum
tintinnabuli; nocte infatuantur. ut simul
multe subito iniectu retis capi possint. Nomi-
igitur perdicis; diabolus significatur. Unde ieremias.
Perdix fovet; quos non peperit. Hec avis et si inmun-
da sit in se in aliquo; tamen propter sui prudentiam
in lege non nominatur inter inmundas. et ideo car-
nes eius amantissimo palato commeduntur. hec
avis similiter prudentes significat; sicut in sa-
lomone dicitur libro. iio. ubi de perdice diximus.

Partridges build their nests with great care. They cover their nests with thorny shrubs to keep harmful animals away. They keep their eggs hidden by covering them with dust and secretly return to the spot they previously marked. Frequent intercourse tires them. Often the females move the chicks away to avoid the males, who frequently harass the chicks, for they impatiently want to mate. If a human approaches the nest where the mother is brooding, she comes out willingly to the intruder and feigning weakness of legs or wings, she pretends to be easily caught and moves more slowly. Thus, she distracts and mocks the humans, leading them away from the nests. Then she flies far away. When the chicks sense they are being watched, they lie on their backs and lift small clods of earth with their feet, thus hiding themselves cleverly. When they are indeed seen, farmers give them as food to ants. Therefore, when they can move away from the nests, the mothers expose them to the sun near an anthill. The partridge is a well-known bird, providing very sweet, loving, and

nourishing meat that looks tender and lovely. Many of them perch together as close as possible, turning their heads together all year round, except from the day of purification, when they begin to be aroused to mate and nest. Then they sit in pairs, each with their mate. At the light of a lantern and the sound of a bell, they become infatuated at night and become vulnerable to the twines of mist nets. The name of the partridge symbolises the Devil. Hence, Jeremiah says, "The partridge broods but does not hatch." This bird, though impure in some respects, is not listed among the unclean birds in the Law because of its prudence and wisdom and therefore its meat is eaten by those with the most refined taste. This bird symbolises wisdom and prudence, as it is written in the Book of Solomon wherein we have spoken about the partridge.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Partridge, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast247.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Jeremiah NKJV 17:11: “As a partridge that broods but does not hatch, So is he who gets riches, but not by right; It will leave him in the midst of his days, And at his end he will be a fool.”

Quail, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

Quails are named after the sound of their call, with the Greek word for quail being ὄρτυξ/órtyx, as they were first sighted on the island of Ortygia. These birds have distinct migration patterns, crossing the seas after summer. Leading the flock is the ortўgŏmētra, or queen quail. Hawks often capture this leader as she approaches land, teaching us to be cautious of foreign leaders and early dangers.

Quails enjoy foods that are highly delightful but contain poisonous seeds, which led the ancients to forbid eating them. Notably, quails, like humans, can suffer from epilepsy. While the quail may be unfamiliar to us today, it was well-known to the children of Israel in biblical times.

Quails' delight in poisonous seeds may be seen as an allegory for temptation and sin. Just as the quails consume foods that are delightful but dangerous, humans may be tempted by sinful pleasures that ultimately harm them.

In the Bible, quails appear in the context of divine provision and punishment and are mentioned in Exodus[1] and Numbers[2]. They were provided by God to the Israelites as food in the desert but their overindulgence led to a plague. This story can symbolise the consequences of succumbing to desires and the importance of temperance.

Coturnices a sono vocis dicuntur quas greci or-
tigias vocant. eo quod vise fuerint primo; in
ortigia insula. Et dicitur coturnix quasi cotaur-
nix. Hee adveniendi habent tempora. Nam esta-
te depulsa; maria transeunt. Ortigometra dicitur
que gregem ducit. Hanc terre appropinquantem
accipiter videns rapit. Ac propterea cura est univer-
sis ducem sollicitare generis externi; pro qua ca-
veant prima discrimina. Cibos gratissimos semi-
na venenorum habent. Quam ob causam. veteres; eas ves-
ci interdixerunt. Solum enim hoc animal sicut et
homo; caducum patitur morbum. Coturnix
nobis ignota est; que olim filiis israel; nota fuit.

Quails are named after the sound of their call: the Greek word for quail is ὄρτυξ/órtyx, for these birds were first seen on the island of Ortygia. These birds have specific times for migration. After summer, they cross the seas. The leader of the flock is called ortўgŏmētra, the queen quail. When a hawk sees this bird approaching land, it captures her. Therefore, it is the duty of all to be wary of foreign leaders to avoid the early dangers. Their most delightful foods contain poisonous seeds. For this reason, the ancients forbade eating them, for only this animal, like humans, suffers from epilepsy. The quail is unknown to us but was known to the children of Israel in the past.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Quail, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast256.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Exodus NKJV 16:13: So it was that quails came up at evening and covered the camp, and in the morning the dew lay all around the camp. And when the layer of dew lifted, there, on the surface of the wilderness, was a small round substance, as fine as frost on the ground. So when the children of Israel saw it, they said to one another, “What is it?” For they did not know what it was. And Moses said to them, “This is the bread which the LORD has given you to eat. This is the thing which the LORD has commanded: ‘Let every man gather it according to each one’s need, one omer for each person, according to the number of persons; let every man take for those who are in his tent.’ ”

[2] Numbers NKJV 11:31-33: Now a wind went out from the Lord, and it brought quail from the sea and left them fluttering near the camp, about a day’s journey on this side and about a day’s journey on the other side, all around the camp, and about two cubits above the surface of the ground. 32 And the people stayed up all that day, all night, and all the next day, and gathered the quail (he who gathered least gathered ten homers); and they spread them out for themselves all around the camp. 33 But while the meat was still between their teeth, before it was chewed, the wrath of the Lord was aroused against the people, and the Lord struck the people with a very great plague.

Magpie, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The magpie, celebrated for its poetical call, is known for mimicking human speech with remarkable skills. Perched on tree branches, it chatters incessantly, creating an artful sound that belies its inability to speak in the true sense.

Named after Picus, the son of Saturn, the magpie held a special place in augury, the ancient practice of interpreting omens. It was believed to possess divine qualities; any tree where the magpie nests sees nails or other fixed objects fall shortly after, a phenomenon attributed to the bird’s mystical influence.

In Christian symbolism, the magpie's behaviour was sometimes used to represent human folly and worldliness. The bird’s habit of gathering shiny objects was seen as a reflection of human pursuit of vanity and material wealth and the mimicry of human speech was interpreted as a lesson about the superficial nature of appearances and the importance of true wisdom over mere imitation.

Pica quasi poetica quod verba in discrimine
vocis exprimat ut homo. Per ramos enim arborum
pendula inportuna garrulit arte sonans. et-
si nequit linguam sermone explicare; sonum
tamen humane vocis imitatur. de qua quidam
ait. Pica loquas certa dominum te voce salutat.
Si me non videas(changed from videamus) esse negabis avem. Pica
a pico saturni filio; nomen sumpsit. quod ea
in auspitiis utebatur. Nam ferunt hanc avem
quiddam habere divinum illo indicio. quod
in quacumque arbore nidificaverit; clavum vel
quicquid aliud fixum diu herere non potest;
quin statim excidat; ubi illa insederit;

The magpie’s call is regarded as poetical, for this bird utters words in a manner akin to human speech. Hanging from the branches of trees, it chatters incessantly with an artful sound. Although it cannot articulate speech with its tongue, it still mimics the sound of human voice. It is said thereof: 'The chattering magpie, firm of voice, greets you as lord. If you do not see me, you will deny that I am a bird'[1]. The magpie, pica, took its name from Picus[2], the son of Saturn, as it was used in augury. It is said that there is something divine about this bird, for any tree in which it nests, a nail or any other fixed object cannot remain long without falling; it will immediately fall wherever the magpie has perched.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Magpie, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast248.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Martial, Epigrams, Book 10, Epigram 42: "The chattering magpie, firm of voice, greets you as lord. If you do not see me, you will deny that I am a bird."

[2] Picus, son of Saturn, was a prominent figure in Roman mythology associated with augury and transformation. His legacy as a prophetic figure and the symbolism of the woodpecker continued to be a significant part of Roman religious and cultural traditions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picus

Hawk, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The hawk is a fascinating bird known more for its spirit and tenacity than its physical claws. Its name, accĭpĭtĕr, stems from the Latin verbs accĭpĭo (to grasp) and căpĭo (to seize), highlighting its keen ability to capture prey. Though it eagerly hunts other birds, it can also be symbolic of predation and cunning, much like Paul’s teachings about enduring suffering when someone takes from you—not merely seizes, but takes away what is yours.

While hawks can be tamed to assist humans in hunting, they are notably harsh with their own eyases, pushing them to fend for themselves by forcefully expelling them from the nest once they are able to fly. This behaviour ensures the eyases do not become lazy or overly dependent on others for sustenance.

In a broader moral context, the hawk's dual nature mirrors individuals who, despite appearing calm or peaceful, are involved in predatory or unethical behaviour, particularly in association with the greedy and powerful. Consequently, in Leviticus, hawks are listed among unclean birds, reflecting their nature in the spiritual law.

Thus, just as the hawk's behaviour serves as a cautionary symbol, those who engage in spiritual contemplation yet focus on earthly gains should avoid imitating such duplicity. Birds like the hawk, sea eagle and hobby, known for their predatory habits, are deemed unclean, symbolising a call to examine one’s true nature and intentions.

Accipiter est avis animo plus armata; quam
ungulis. virtutem maiorem in minori corpo-
re gestans. et dicitur ab accipiendo et a capien-
do. Est autem avis rapiendis aliis avibus avida. ac-
cipiter enim dicitur. id est raptor. Unde et paulus
dicit. Sustinetis enim si quis accipit vos. Un enim
diceret. si quis rapit; dixit. Si quis accipit. hec
avis fera est; sed mansuescit. et rapinam cum
hominiubs operatur. Fertur autem circa pullos su-
os impius esse. Nam dum viderit eos posse temp-
tare volatus; nullas eis prebet escas. sed verbe-
rat pennis. et a nido precipitat. atque a tenero;
compellit ad predam. ne forte adulti pigrescant.
ne solvantur delitiis. ne marcescant otio.
ne discant cibum magis expectare; quam que-
rere. Accipiter qui mansuescit et cum hominibus
rapinam operatur; est qui mansuete vivere(added) videtur;
set cum rapacibus et potentibus et avaris rape-
re nititur. Unde in levitico accipiter iuxta
genus suum inter aves inmundas reputatur.

The hawk is a bird more armed by its spirit than by its talons, possessing greater power in a smaller body. It is called accĭpĭtĕr from the verbs accĭpĭo, grasping, and căpĭo, seizing. The hawk is eager to seize other birds; therefore, it is called raptor[1]. As Paul says, 'You suffer if someone takes from you.'[2] He would not have said 'if someone seizes'; he said 'if someone takes.' This bird is wild but becomes tame and helps humans with hunting. However, it is said to be cruel towards its eyases. When it sees that they are able to fly, it does not provide them with any food but strikes them with its wings and throws them out of the nest. From a young age, it forces them to hunt lest they become lazy or indulgent in their youth and learn to expect food instead of earning it. The hawk that becomes tame and helps humans with hunting represents those who appear to live peacefully but strive to take from others in the company of greedy and powerful individuals. Hence, in Leviticus, the hawk is enumerated among the unclean birds according to its kind.

Contemplativus enim cuius lectio est. in celis. et
vita in terrenis lucris; imitandus non est.
Et bene dicit iuxta genus suum. quia alietus qui
dicitur gallice hobel. vel falco qui incurvos
habet digitos. et omnes huiusmodi aves quibus
alie aves capriuntur; inmunde sunt sed legem.

For the contemplative whose lesson is in heaven, and life in earthly gains; it is not to be imitated. And he says well according to his kind, because the bird which is called in French the hobel, or the hawk which has crooked fingers, and all such birds by which other birds are caught, are unclean but the law.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Hawk, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast249.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Raptor comes from the verb răpĭo, is, răpŭi, raptum, ĕre meaning to seize, to capture, to snatch.

[2] Corinthians 2 NKJV, 11:20: For you put up with it zif one brings you into bondage, if one devours you, if one takes from you, if one exalts himself, if one strikes you on the face.

Bat, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The bat, a creature named after dusk (vespĕr), is often seen as despicable for its nocturnal habits and erratic flight patterns at twilight. Unlike other birds, it flies not with wings but with delicate membranes stretched across its arms. Despite being a flying creature, it shares traits with quadrupeds, like having teeth and giving birth to live bat pups. Bats often cling to one another, hanging in clusters that resemble bunches of grapes, showing a rare sympathy among creatures.

They have long been associated with darkness and impurity. Their blood was once believed to cause baldness and in the Leviticus, they are listed among the unclean birds, symbolising those who turn away from spiritual contemplation towards earthly desires. Isaiah warns against such darkness, prophesying a day when people will cast aside their idols to worship moles and bats, representing the rejection of light and truth for false beliefs.

Vespertilio animal ignobilis; a vespere nomen
accepit. eoquod lucem fugiens crepusculo
vespertino. volatibus irrationabilibus et flexuosis
circumvolat. precepti motu acta et non pennis.
set loco pennarum tenuissimis brachiorum mem-
branis suspensa. Est autem volatile. idemque
quadrupes et dentibus utitur. quod in aliis avi-
bus repperire non solet. Animal muribus simile.
non tam voce resonans quam stridore. Parit ut qua-

The bat is a despicable creature: it is named after the dusk, vespĕr, for it runs away from the light and flies erratically and sinuously at evening twilight. Its darting movements are not made by wings but by the delicate membranes of its arms, where wings are supposed to be. It is both a flying creature and a quadruped and has teeth, which is uncommon among other birds. It resembles a mouse and utters screeching sounds. Like quadrupeds,

drupedia non ova; sed pullos; viventes. Habet
et illud hoc vile animal; quod sibi invicem adhe-
rent. et quasi specie botrionis; ex aliquo loco pen-
dent. Et si se ultima queque laxaverit; omnes resol-
vuntur. Quod fit quodam munere caritatis. que
difficile in hominibus huiusmodi reperitur. De qua
dicunt quidam quod si de eius sanguine perun-
gatur capillatus; caluescit. In levitico hec avis inter
inmundas que commedi non debent; reputatur.
Quia contemplativus qui doctrinam quatuor evvan-
gelior ad terrena convertit. utens nocte cupi-
ditatis pro die contemplationis; mitandus non
est. Unde ysaias de tenebrosa doctrina hereti-
corum. qui luci veritatis non appropinquant; dicit.
In die illa proiciet homo ydola auri et argenti
sui; ut adoret talpas et vespertiliones. et cetera.

it does not lay eggs but begets bat pups. These vile creatures also tend to cling to one another; when they are hanging from some place, they resemble a bunch of grapes. If the last one loosens its grip, they all disperse. They do it out of sympathy, which is difficult to find among humans. The blood of a bat will cause baldness when applied to hair. In Leviticus, this creature is enumerated among the unclean birds that should not be eaten, for a contemplative person who turns the teachings of the four Gospels toward earthly things, using the night of lust in place of the day of contemplation, should not be imitated. Hence, Isaiah speaks of the dark doctrines of heretics who do not approach the light of truth. 'On that day, a man will cast away his idols of silver and gold to worship moles and bats'[1].

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Bat, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast250.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Isajah NKJV 2:20: In that day a man will cast away his idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made, each for himself to worship, to the moles and bats,

Tawny owl, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The tawny owl, ŭlŭla, derives its name from its mournful cries, which resemble weeping or moaning. Among augurs, its call is a sign of sadness, while its silence is seen as a harbinger of prosperity. Similar in size to a crow, this speckled bird is said to utter a dreadful howl from the marshlands. Symbolically, the tawny owl represents demons, heresies and other vices that dwell in a troubled mind. As Isaiah prophesied about Babylon: "The owl shall dwell there, and the sirens in the places of pleasure."

Tawny owls often symbolised negative aspects such as mourning, death, darkness and spiritual confusion. These representations were tied to the owl's nocturnal nature and eerie, mournful calls, which were perceived as omens of doom or ill fortune.

Ulula est avis a luctu vel planctu nominata. Cum // enim clamat; aut fletum imitatur; aut gemitum // non in alio Unde apud augures. filamentetur; tristiciam. tacens; // ostendere prosperitatem; Et est magnitudinis corvine. // sed maculis respersa. que rostro in palude fixo; or-// ribiliter ululat et stridet. Significat hec avis; //

The tawny owl, ŭlŭla, is named after mourning or lamentation, for when it cries, it sounds like it is mimicking weeping or moaning. Hence, among augurs, it is considered a sign of sadness but silence signifies prosperity. It has the size of a crow but is speckled and with its beak fixed in the marshlands, it utters a dreadful howl and screech. This bird mystically

mistice demones sive hereses et vicia alia quo(changed to que) // habitant in mente confusa. Unde ysaias de b-// bilone dicit post alia. Et respondebunt ibi ulu-// le; in edibus eius. et sirene in edibus voluptatis. //

represents demons, heresies and other vices that indwell a confused mind. Hence, Isaiah says concerning Babylon: 'And the owl shall dwell there; in its palaces, and the sirens in the places of pleasure.'

Further Reading

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] Isaiah NKJV 13:21-22: But wild beasts of the desert will lie there, And their houses will be full of [a]owls; Ostriches will dwell there, And wild goats will caper there. 22 The hyenas will howl in their citadels, And jackals in their pleasant palaces. Her time is near to come, And her days will not be prolonged.”

Kite, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The kite, known as Milvus, earns its name from its graceful, effortless flight. Soaring high above the clouds with its wings outstretched, it surveys the earth for carrion or other prey. This bird is highly predatory and can be aggressive towards both domestic birds and its own nestlings. It also produces a range of distinct calls. Symbolically, the kite represents those who, despite appearing spiritually focused, are driven by earthly desires. In Leviticus, the kite is listed among the unclean birds. The lesson here is clear: one should not emulate the contemplatives who, despite their lofty ambitions, are consumed by worldly pursuits.

Kites were often used to symbolise greed or avarice. Their predatory nature and scavenging habits made them an apt metaphor for excessive desire and the voracious pursuit of material gain. Their graceful and effortless flight contrasted with their rapacious nature served as a reminder of the deceptive appearances in life. It symbolised those who may seem pious or lofty but are actually motivated by earthly desires

Muus ; a mollicie volandi dicitur. Inmobi- non in alio
li enim penna; super altitudinem nubium fer-
tur; super terram respiciens. ut cadaver aliquod
vel aliquid tale in predam rapiat. Avis rapa-
cissima et domesticus avibus et pullis infesta.
modulos varios; voce formans. blank ec avis sig-

The kite, milvus, is called so, for its flight is soft. It glides above the height of the clouds with its wings held in a fixed position and looks down upon the earth, so that it might seize some carrion or similar prey. It is a very rapacious bird and is hostile to both domestic birds and its own nestlings. It makes various modulations of its call. This bird

nificat rapaces quorum lectio est in celestibus vita in
terrenis. Unde in levitico inter inmundas aves
que commedi non debent; reputatur. Contempla-
turum enim qui terrena cupit; nemo imitari de-
bet.

symbolises the rapacious, whose reading and studying are in the heavens but whose life is on earth. Hence, in Leviticus, it is enumerated among the unclean birds that should not be eaten. No one should imitate the contemplatives who long for earthly things.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Kite, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast544.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] The word muus does not exist in Latin. There is a word, mūs, but it means mouse. The word muus is most probably a transcription mistake. The word is likely to be milvus, kite.

Crow, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The crow, a long-lived member of the Corvidae family, is often considered unclean according to ancient laws. It is known for its ability to reveal ambushes and forecast rain, earning the saying: "Then the impudent crow calls for full rain with its harsh voice." Unlike the easily deceived jackdaw, crows and ravens clearly signal the certainty of events and are vigilant against threats.

The text contrasts this vigilance with human behaviour, urging people to care deeply for their children. It criticises neglectful practices, particularly the abandonment of children by those in poverty and the inhumane acts of the wealthy who eliminate their offspring to protect their inheritance. This raises profound questions about the morality of parental rights and the unequal treatment of siblings.

It challenges the notion that inheritance should divide brothers, stressing that nature provides equally for all and that blood ties should take precedence over material wealth. In essence, it calls for a recognition of the fundamental equality of siblings, regardless of their economic status and advocates for a more humane approach to familial responsibilities and inheritance.

Crows, being scavengers that feed on carrion, were associated with death and decay and mourning. In medieval bestiaries, they symbolised sin and moral corruption, reflecting their role in consuming the dead and their dark, ominous presence. Owing to their black plumage and scavenging habits, crows were often seen as harbingers of doom and misfortune. Their call was believed to foretell calamities or misfortunes and they were sometimes linked with supernatural or malevolent forces.

Cornix annosa avis corvini generis est. et
inmunda est. Unde in lege quicquid corvini
generis est. comedi perhibetur. hec avis nocturnas
insidias et diurnas manifestat clamore. pluvi-
as vocibus portendit. Unde est. illud. Tunc cornix
plenam pluviam vocat improba voce. Et corvus
cornix certum diei iudicium voce indicat. nec

The crow is a long-lived bird of the Corvidae family and is unclean. Hence, in the Law, whatever belongs to the Corvidae family is forbidden to eat. This bird reveals nocturnal ambushes and daytime attacks with its cry and foretells rain. Hence, the saying: "Then the impudent crow calls for full rain with its harsh voice." The crow and the raven indicate with their call the certainty of the day’s judgment and

fallitur ut monedula; et circa homines eorum est ha-
bitatio. et sollerti intuitu ab ictu se precavent.
Discant homines amare filios comitatu sedulo et sol-
licite prosequantur. ne teneri forte deficiant. cibum
suggerant. ac plurimo temporis spacio nutriendi of-
ficia non relinquant. Nam femine nostri generis cito
ablactant etiam illos quos diligunt. lactare fastidi-
unt pauperiores si fuerint. parvos abiciunt et expo-
nunt. et deprehensos abnegant. Ipse quoque divites ne
per plures suum patrimonium dividatur; in uteros proprios
fetus necant. et paricidialibus suis in ipso genitali
alvo pignora sui ventris extingunt. Priusquam au -
fertur vita; quam traditur. Quis docuit nisi homo
filios abdicari. quis reperit tam immicia patrum
iura; Quis inter nature fraterna consortia fratres
impares fecit. Unius divitis filii diversitati cedunt.
Alius paterne totius sortis ac scriptionibus inunda-
tur. alius occulte hereditatis paterne deplorat exhaus-
tam atque inopem portionem. Numquid natura
divisit filiorum merita; Ex pari omnibus tribuit

are not deceived like the jackdaw. Their dwelling is near human beings and they protect themselves from snares, with keen eyesight. Let humans learn to love their children, to watch them with great care, lest they perish from neglect. Let them provide them with food and not abandon the duties of nurturing them for a long time. The women of our kind quickly wean even those they love and refuse to breastfeed them if they live in poverty. They neglect and abandon their small children and when discovered, they deny doing it. The wealthy also kill their offspring in their own wombs so that their inheritance is not shared among many and discard the children of their own womb by concocting murderous plans. They take away life before giving it. Who has taught this, if not humans, to disown their own children? Who has endowed parents with such inhumane rights? Who has made brothers unequal among the bonds of fraternal fellowship? The sons of rich men yield to contradiction: one is entirely overwhelmed by the inheritance and wealth of the father, whereas another secretly laments the drained and impoverished portion of the paternal inheritance. Can it be that nature has divided the inheritance of the sons? Nature equally has shared everything among all and given what they need to be born and to survive.

quod ad nascendi et vivendi possint habere substan-
tiam. Ipsa vos doceat non discernere patrimonio quos
titulo germanitatis equavit. Etenim quibus datur
communiter esse quod nati sunt; non debent ut commu-
niter habeant id quod una substituti sunt invi-
dere.

Let nature teach you not to distinguish by estate those whom the blood ties between two brothers has made equal. Indeed, those who are given equally the necessities of life should not grudge that which they have in common.

Further Reading

David Badke, The Bestiary Blog: Animals in the Middle Ages, Crow, November 6 2023, https://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast252.htm

Mynott, J, Birds in the Ancient World (New York: Oxford University Press 2018)

Josh Goldenberg (BA 2012) and Matt Shanahan (BA 2014), Logeion, November 2022, https://logeion.uchicago.edu/

Castiglioni, L. and Mariotti, S. (1996). Vocabolario della Lingua Latina: Latino-Italiano Italiano-Latino. Terza Edizione. Loescher Torino

Curley, M. J., Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (University of Chicago edition 2009)

Rackham, H., M.A., Pliny Natural History Volume III, Libri VIII-XI (London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1949)

Collins, A. H., M.A., Symbolism of Animals and Birds (New York: McBride, Nast & Company, 1913)

Henderson, C., The Book of Barely Imagined Beings (London: University of Chicago Press, 2013)

White, T. H., The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts (New York: G.P Putnam’s Sons, 1960)

Matthews, J. and Matthews C., The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A-Z of fantastic beings from myth and magic (London: HarperElement, 2005)

Barney, S. A., Lewis, W. J., Beach A., Berghof O., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Endnotes

[1] This is a passage by the Roman poet Virgil in his work Georgics, Book I, line 388: “Tum cornix plena pluviam vocat improba voce.” Virgil's Georgics is a didactic poem that discusses agricultural practices and includes observations about nature, including the behaviour of animals as omens of weather changes. The crow's call is here associated with the prediction of rain, a belief that persisted in later folklore and medieval texts.

Raven, Rochester Bestiary, c.1230

The medieval bestiary suggests the raven does not feed its young well until it recognises that they look like themselves, and when their feathers turn black they see them as their young and then they will feed them in large quantities. They are sometimes seen as sinful or unfaithful (Barber 2008).

Transcription

Translation

Corvus est predicator gentilis. qui niger fuit
in pccatis. sed in adventu christi; cantate predicando; in
fenestra sensuum nostrorum. et in superliminari; videlicet
menti nostre sapientie verba infigens. Vel in ma-
lam partem totum legi potest. Per hec enim animalia
que omnia inmunda sunt; significantur vicia vel de-
monia que habitant in anima per ypocrisis similitudi-
nem; spinosa vel speciosam. et mentis rationem. et sensus nostros se-
ducunt. Limen enim; corpus vel sensualitas est. Super
liminare autem anima vel ratio. que omnia seduc-
tione demonum viciantur.

The raven is a Gentile preacher, who was black in the penances, but in the advent of Christ; sing while preaching; in the window of our senses, and on the threshold; that is, impressing words of wisdom upon our minds. Or the whole can be read in a bad way. For by this all animals are unclean; vices or demons are signified which dwell in the soul through the likeness of hypocrisy; thorny or beautiful, and the reasoning of our mind and our senses. For the threshold; it is the body or sensuality. But above the threshold, the soul or the reason, that everything is defeated by the seduction of demons.